1. CHAPTER 12: Individuals and Families of Latin Descent
Developing Multicultural Counseling Competence: A Systems Approach
Second Edition
Danica G. Hays and Bradley T. Erford

2. Latin American Heterogeneity
U.S. Latina/os currently account for over 16% of the U.S. population (≈50.4 million)
Latina/os living in the U.S. come from 19 countries
Variation in food, Spanish dialects, indigenous tongues, folk tales, burial rituals, dances, religious nuances, educational experiences, immigration statuses, career opportunities, & economic realities
Latina/os share obstacles to political, social, educational, & emotional stability
39% Latina/os do not have a high school diploma
12% Latinoa/ os are employed in office and administrative support; 10.4% are in the construction trades
Median age of Latina/os in the U.S. is 27 years

3. Mexicans 65.5% of all U.S. Latina/os
U.S. immigration debate has focused on Mexicans due to their large concentration along border-states
Some individuals assume that non-native U.S. residents are in this country illegally, leading to racism & stereotypes
Issues of discrimination & limited socioeconomic advancement are compounded by large high school dropout rates & low 4-year college completion rates

4. Puerto Ricans
Second largest group of Latina/os in the U.S. (9.1% of U.S. Latino population)
Live in & around metropolitan centers in the Northeast
Those born in Puerto Rico are U.S. citizens
Have experienced drops in median household income since 2000, and now trail Mexicans and Cubans, but have increased the rate at which they finish high school
More likely to have health insurance but are less likely to own a home than Cubans and Mexicans
Have also influenced the arts & politics

5. Cubans
3.5% of U.S. Latina/o population – 3rd largest U.S. Latino population
Cubans are more concentrated in South Florida & New York
Most Cuban immigrants came to the U.S. for political reasons & most immigrated within the last 50 years
Highest rate of high school & college graduation
Higher mean earnings than all other U.S. Latina/os
Held four congressional seats and two Senate seats in the 112th U.S. Congress
Cubans still experience economic hardship, acculturative stress, & educational barriers

6. Caribbean Hispanics/Latina/os, and Central & South Americans
Dominicans, Colombians, Guatemalans, & Salvadorans make up a large percentage of the “other” U.S. Latina/os with at least 500,000 individuals from each group residing in the U.S.
Currently, 1.6 million Salvadorans reside in the U.S. – the same number as Cuban Americans
Immigration patterns are much more difficult to characterize with many reasons for leaving native lands
Difficult to make generalizations due to inherent nature of heterogeneity as it relates to education, unemployment, public assistance, & mean earnings
Counselors should find out information about U.S. Latina/o client experiences before drawing incorrect conclusions

7. Latin American Culture and Values
“Somos Immigrantes/We are Immigrants”
Language
Religion & Spirituality
Vast majority identify as Christian (89.9%) with most as Roman Catholic (67.6%) although there are Latino/a Jews and Muslims
Catholicism is related to colonization of Latin American countries by Spanish & Portugese conquistadors
U.S. Latina/os are more likely to turn to a priest, minister, or curandero (healing man) in a time of emotional difficulty than mental health professionals

8. Latin American Culture and Values Cont.
Gender Roles
Machismo - a strong, virile, omnipotent man who takes care of his family by providing food & shelter
Marianismo - requires a woman to be pure, make sacrifices for the husband’s & children’s benefit, not engage in premarital sex, & be a nurturing female role-model for her daughters
Counselors should assess the importance & observance of traditional gender roles
Counselors should assess their own attitudes towards marianismo & machismo

9. Latin American Culture and Values Cont.
Families
Immediate & extended family are of extreme importance
Familismo - an individual’s consideration of one’s parents, siblings, grandparents, aunts, uncles, & even close friends of the family & religious godparents when making decisions
Counselors should consider how the client views & defines the immediate & extended family

10. Latin American Culture and Values Cont.
Interpersonal Relationships
Personalismo - warmth, affection, worrying about others, & positive regard for those close to an individual
Confianza - trust & confidence; the closest counterpart to rapport in a counseling relationship

11. Individual Differences & Identities
Core cultural values are mediated by immigration status, generational status, & socioeconomic status
Immigration status
Crucial to understanding the options, barriers, & opportunities Latina/os face in the U.S.
Forced migration vs. voluntary migration
Counselors need to openly discuss the stressors of living undocumented in the U.S. and network with local resources
Generational status
First-generation immigrants are those who were born in a different country & immigrated to the U.S. whose children would be considered second-generation immigrants
Counselors should find out from their clients what they consider themselves to be in relation to their generational status

12. Individual Differences & Identities Cont.
Socioeconomic status
SES of undocumented immigrants
Additional stressors include: more workplace discrimination, perceived disempowerment to report precarious working conditions, fewer opportunities for upward mobility, and insufficient medical and financial benefits

13. Mental Health Issues of Individuals of Latin Descent
Systems play roles in the experiences of U.S. Latina/os on personal, family, & community levels
Counselors should keep in mind the richness & variety of the U.S. Latino experience as they prepare to assess the counseling needs, strengths, & goals of their clients
Use & familiarity of Spanish in the U.S. leads to limited English fluency
Communication barriers may contribute to mental health concerns for U.S. Latina/os
U.S. Latina/os experience barriers in the workforce & school settings which adversely affect & compound mental health issues
The U.S. educational system is not as equally available or helpful to Latina/o students
Lower levels of education impact self-efficacy levels, & contribute to higher poverty & limited earnings
Limited health insurance for Latina/o population

14. Mental Health Issues of Individuals of Latin Descent Cont.
Acculturative Stress
Grief & Loss – Associated with leaving loved ones behind, sacrificing cultural traits and mores for those of the host culture or having a minority status
Additional Concerns
Domestic violence, substance abuse, depression, divorce, unemployment, teenage pregnancy, physical & sexual abuse victimization, academic struggles, & homelessness may contribute to fear, anxiety, helplessness, hopelessness, or anger in Latina/os
May be directly related to cultural manifestations of grief and acculturative stress

15. Guidelines for Counseling Clients of Latin Descent
Counseling needs, strengths, goals, & objectives vary according to age, immigration status, country of origin, where they settled in the U.S., socioeconomic status, language preference, assimilation, and many other factors
Use of cognitive-behavioral & directive approaches

16. Counseling Considerations for Adolescents of Latin Descent
Counselors can use Individual, Group, & Family interventions
Attention to age and birthplace of children of Latin descent, and their identification with a Latino heritage
Counselors should pay close attention to the academic experiences of their adolescent U.S. Latina/o clients due to the important role school plays in the development & socialization of teenagers.
Cuento Therapy - “fairy tale”; used to model desirable social behaviors for Puerto Rican children

17. Counseling Considerations for Adolescents of Latin Descent Cont.
Counselors should be aware of the adolescent’s:
difficulty reconciling bicultural statuses
feelings toward gender roles & sexual orientation development
limited exposure to culturally-related extracurricular school activities
potential substance use as a coping mechanism for stress
level of experience & exposure to various career opportunities
Use of individual and group interventions
Use of Brief Strategic Family Therapy (BSFT)

18. Counseling Considerations for Adolescents of Latin Descent Cont.
Consider the impact of immigration status and the practice of cultural & religious customs
1st generation immigrants may experience constant stress over immigration status
They may also feel a sense of pride at achieving citizenship or guilt for giving up affiliation with their country of origin
The amount of time a Latina/o adult has lived in the U.S. can influence the vigor with which they adhere to Latino norms, customs, traditions, & religious practice
Counselors should assess if and how the client’s presenting problem is related to immigration & a longing for cultural connections

19. Counseling Considerations for Adolescents of Latin Descent Cont.
Counselors should be aware of adults:
struggling with caring for elderly parents in the American society where values concerning elders are different
experiencing discrimination in the workplace & underemployment
with difficulty connecting to their children due to their biculturalism
with feelings of powerlessness because they must depend on their children to serve as translators
who feel the need to send remittances to family, friends, or creditors in their native countries, while struggling for economic stability in the U.S.

20. Counseling Considerations for Adolescents of Latin Descent Cont.
A systems-approach to counseling should be employed
Individual interventions should focus on the different culturally- related factors that may be impacting the presenting issue
Group counseling is the “modality of choice” due to its benefits of cohesion & universality
Counselors should not assume that they can lump U.S. Latina/o clients into any type of group
There may be hesitation for family therapy due to cultural norms (e.g., seeking help from family & clergy members)
The family system is often partially responsible/affected by the issue(s), so involving family members can become a precarious experience
Use of genograms and eco-maps