2. Comparative Reasoning
Chapter 12
Comparative Reasoning
© 2016 by Pearson Education, Inc.

3. Learning Outcomes
Explain comparative reasoning and how it impacts our understanding of novel situations
Apply correctly the five criteria for the evaluation of comparative reasoning
Describe the uses, benefits, and risks of comparative reasoning
Learning Outcomes
Chapter first explains comparative reasoning and how it impacts our understanding of novel situations.
It then applies correctly the five criteria for the evaluation of comparative reasoning.
The chapter finally describes the uses, benefits, and risks of comparative reasoning.

4. Chapter Opening Video Chapter Opening Video
The video talks about comparative reasoning.
It shows the importance of identifying and evaluating the comparative reasoning and the analogies.

5. This is Like That—Recognizing Comparative Reasoning
Our minds crave patterns
Comparative, ideological, and empirical inferences
Gardens of comparatives
Powerful comparisons connect intellect and emotion
This is Like That—Recognizing Comparative Reasoning
Comparative reasoning: Process of using what is more familiar to make interpretations, explanations, or inferences about what is less familiar.
Our minds crave patterns
Pattern recognition is fundamental to human learning.
Comparative, ideological, and empirical inferences
Comparative, ideological and empirical reasoning are fundamental reasoning strategies.
Gardens of comparatives
Comparative reasoning relies on images, comparisons, parables, allegories, fables, models, metaphors, and similes.
Powerful comparisons connect intellect and emotion
Speech and songwriters, and poets associate their ideas with memorable comparisons as they are capable of influencing people.

6. Our Minds Crave Patterns
Pattern recognition was inherited as the human species evolved
People crave patterns and impose them on natural phenomena
Pattern recognition is fundamental to human learning
Our Minds Crave Patterns
Pattern recognition was inherited as the human species evolved.
People crave patterns and impose them on natural phenomena.
Individuals have the ability to recognise when a familiar pattern is not followed.
Human minds can impose any number of different patterns.
Pattern recognition is fundamental to human learning.
People try to understand novel experiences by integrating them with what they already know.

7. Our Minds Crave Patterns
Comparative reasoning
Projecting the familiar on to the unfamiliar as a way of seeking understanding
Involves potential risks and problems
Our Minds Crave Patterns
Comparative reasoning
Projecting the familiar on to the unfamiliar as a way of seeking understanding.
Example - An employer asks a job applicant about prior work experience as he believes that it will make it easier for the new hire to learn the new job.
Involves potential risks and problems.

8. Comparative, Ideological, and Empirical Inferences
Comparative reasoning
Enables one to make interpretations, draw inferences, or offer explanations
Ideological reasoning
Top-down from core beliefs
Empirical reasoning
Bottom-up from observations to generalizations
Comparative, Ideological, and Empirical Inferences - Fundamental reasoning strategies.
Each strategy offers advantages and disadvantages.
Comparative reasoning
Enables one to make interpretations, draw inferences, or offer explanations.
Relies on something more familiar to understand something that is less familiar.
Helps explain abstract ideas and offer advice.
Ideological reasoning
Top-down from core beliefs.
Empirical reasoning
Bottom-up from observations to generalizations.

9. Breaking Down Comparative Reasoning
Comparative reasoning can be interpreted using different features of interest.
Above table describes the features and assertion of similarities involved in the two examples.

10. Gardens of Comparatives
People cultivate a variety of ways to express comparative reasoning
Comparisons shape judgments of what to believe or do
Comparative reasoning relies on images, comparisons, parables, allegories, fables, models, metaphors, and similes
Gardens of Comparatives
People cultivate a variety of ways to express comparative reasoning.
Most comparative reasoning does not appear as fully developed argument with reasons and claims.
Comparisons shape judgments of what to believe or do.
Judicious critical thinkers must be alert to the ways people use comparisons to express their thinking.
Comparative reasoning relies on images, comparisons, parables, allegories, fables, models, metaphors, and similes.

11. Gardens of Comparatives
Comparative reasoning is used to:
Illustrate ideas
Offer interpretations
Make arguments
Give reasons
Explain our thinking
Simplify concepts
Gardens of Comparatives
Comparative reasoning is used to:
Illustrate ideas.
Offer interpretations.
Make arguments
Give reasons.
Explain our thinking.
Simplify concepts.
Comparisons have the power to persuade people, shape expectations, alter attitudes, and evoke emotions.

12. Powerful Comparisons Connect Intellect and Emotion
Comparisons communicate at both emotional and intellectual level
Can dispose one’s opinion for or against people, and points of view even before one engages in System-2 reflective judgment
Powerful Comparisons Connect Intellect and Emotion
Comparisons communicate at both emotional and intellectual level.
Speech and songwriters, and poets associate their ideas with memorable comparisons as they are capable of influencing people.
Can dispose one’s opinion for or against people, and points of view even before one engages in System-2 reflective judgment.

13. Discussion Question
Provide a powerful example of comparative reasoning
The example should connect intellect and emotion, and complete the sentence “Being a college student is like …”
Discussion Question
Provide a powerful example of comparative reasoning.
The example should connect intellect and emotion, and complete the sentence “Being a college student is like …”
This discussion question aims to show how comparisons connect to a person’s intellect and emotions.

14. Evaluating Comparative Inferences
Four tests of acceptability
Five criteria for evaluating comparative reasoning
Evaluating Comparative Inferences
Knowledge of comparisons is essential for its usage.
Several factors contribute to the merit of a comparison.
Four tests of acceptability
Evaluates the acceptability of a comparison.
Five criteria for evaluating comparative reasoning
The value of comparative reasoning lies in the possibility that it could lead to new insights, hypotheses, and dimensions.

15. Four Tests of Acceptability
First test
Are the premises all true?
Second test
Are there counterexamples and how difficult is it to imagine them?
Four Tests of Acceptability
First test
Are the premises all true?
Words true and false are not optimal for evaluating a sentence that asserts a comparison.
Words like apt, insightful, vivid, silly, and superficial are better words for evaluation.
Second test
Are there counterexamples and how difficult is it to imagine them?
Helps gauge the logical strength of the analogy.
Comparisons can be categorized as more or less plausible.
Comparative reasoning reveals points of dissimilarity and similarity.

16. Four Tests of Acceptability
Third test
Are the premises relevant to the truth of the conclusion?
Fourth test
Does the truth of any premise depend on the truth of the conclusion?
Four Tests of Acceptability
Third test
Are the premises relevant to the truth of the conclusion?
Conclusion is the assertion about the characteristics of the unfamiliar object.
Maker of the analogy must show that the comparison is relevant.
Fourth test
Does the truth of any premise depend on the truth of the conclusion?
Comparative inferences should flow from what one knows about the premises and what one can project to be true.
Purpose of comparative reasoning
To illustrate, illuminate, suggest, or hypothesize.

17. Five Criteria for Evaluating Comparative Reasoning
Familiarity
Degree of knowledge the listener has about the object to which the unknown is being compared
Successful comparisons direct listener’s attention to a more familiar object
Five Criteria for Evaluating Comparative Reasoning
The value of comparative reasoning lies in the possibility that it could lead to new insights, hypotheses, and dimensions.
Familiarity
Degree of knowledge the listener has about the object to which the unknown is being compared.
Successful comparisons direct listener’s attention to a more familiar object.
Lack of familiarity with the object of the comparison can suppress the analogy.

18. Five Criteria for Evaluating Comparative Reasoning
Simplicity: Measure of the relative complexity of the comparison
Comprehensiveness
A comparison is more comprehensive than the other based on the number of central or essential features it captures
Five Criteria for Evaluating Comparative Reasoning
The value of comparative reasoning lies in the possibility that it could lead to new insights, hypotheses, and dimensions.
Simplicity: Measure of the relative complexity of the comparison.
Simpler comparisons are readily understood and remembered.
Comprehensiveness
A comparison is more comprehensive than the other based on the number of central or essential features it captures.
Example - A counsellor says to a camper,”Hold the handle like you would a tennis racket. Set your feet apart like you would if you were getting ready to push something heavy. And swing like you would if you were going to hit a nail with a heavy hammer.”
Instead he could say, “Swing an axe like you swing a baseball bat.”

19. Five Criteria for Evaluating Comparative Reasoning
Productivity
Capacity to suggest ideas beyond those mentioned in the initial comparison
Testability
Capacity to project consequences that have potential to be shown to be false, inapplicable, or unacceptable
Five Criteria for Evaluating Comparative Reasoning
The value of comparative reasoning lies in the possibility that it could lead to new insights, hypotheses, and dimensions.
Productivity
Capacity to suggest ideas beyond those mentioned in the initial comparison.
Exploring productive comparisons can reveal additional possible implications.
Testability
Capacity to project consequences that have potential to be shown to be false, inapplicable, or unacceptable.
Criterion of testability allows to evaluate the acceptability of a proposed comparison.

20. Models and Metaphors Shape Expectations
Creative suggestions vs. solid proofs
Uses of comparative inferences
Models and Metaphors Shape Expectations
Creative suggestions vs. solid proofs
Comparative inferences are inadequate to serve as proofs of ideas.
Uses of comparative inferences
Comparative inferences help suggest approaches to understand unfamiliar things.

21. Creative Suggestions Vs. Solid Proofs
Comparative inferences are used to:
Explore assumptions
Shape expectations about new situations
Creative comparisons are suggestive of new ideas
Comparative inferences are inadequate to serve as proofs of ideas
Creative Suggestions Vs. Solid Proofs
Comparative inferences are used to:
Explore assumptions.
Shape expectations about new situations.
Creative comparisons are suggestive of new ideas.
Analogies suggest alternatives, possible explanations, and hypotheses.
Comparative inferences are inadequate to serve as proofs of ideas.

22. Uses of Comparative Inferences
Comparative reasoning is used in:
Legal argumentation
Discussions of ethics
Built into the language one speaks
Help suggest approaches to understand unfamiliar things
Uses of Comparative Inferences
Comparative reasoning is used in:
Legal argumentation.
Discussions of ethics.
Comparative reasoning is powerfully persuasive.
Persuasive power depends heavily on the suggested parallelism.
Comparisons are built into language.
Example - Standard household electric current flows through the wiring in our homes and businesses.
Help suggest approaches to understand unfamiliar things.
Memorable and compelling.
Shape individual and group decisions.
Humorous, emotionally evocative, and powerfully motivating.
Strong critical thinkers will be cautious when comparisons and metaphors are used as substitutes for solid explanations.

23. Sketchnote Video Sketchnote Video
The video summarizes the benefits of comparative reasoning when it is done in a thoughtful and logical manner.