1. Chapter 10
Intelligence

2. DEFINING INTELLIGENCE
Exactly what makes up intelligence is a matter of debate
David Wechsler’s Definition
Act purposefully
Think rationally
Deal effectively with the environment

3. EARLY THEORIES OF INTELLIGENCE
Dude. holy ears!
Charles Spearman
Believed intelligence is general – “G-Factor”
People who are bright in one area are usually bright in other areas as well
L. L. Thurstone
Believed that intelligence is made up of seven distinct, independent abilities: Spatial ability, perceptual speed, numerical ability, verbal meaning, memory, word fluency, reasoning
Thurstone did not believe in a G-Factor, but researchers who scored well in one of the seven areas tended to score well on others.
Ain’t nuthin but a G thang.
7 Different abilities!

4. Early Theories of Intelligence: R. B. Cattell
Identified two clusters of mental abilities
Crystallized intelligence includes abilities such as reasoning and verbal skills
Fluid intelligence includes skills such as spatial and visual imagery, rote memory, and the ability to notice visual details
While education can increase crystallized intelligence, it was not thought to have any effect on fluid intelligence

5. Contemporary Theories of Intelligence: Howard Gardner
Howard Gardner’s theory of multiple intelligences
Example of savant syndrome
Logical- mathematical
Linguistic
Spatial
Musical
Bodily- kinesthetic
Interpersonal
Intrapersonal
Naturalistic

6. CONTEMPORARY THEORIES OFINTELLIGENCE: HOWARD GARDNER

7. CONTEMPORARY THEORIES OF INTELLIGENCE: ROBERT STERNBERG
Triarchic theory of intelligence posits three types of intelligence (prototype of 3 grad school applicants)
Analytical intelligence includes the ability to learn how to do things, solve problems, and acquire new knowledge (Alice)
Creative intelligence includes the ability adjust to new tasks, generate novel ideas, use new concepts, and respond well in new situations (Barbara)
Practical intelligence includes the ability to select contexts in which you can excel and solve practical problems (Celia)

8. Creativity
Defined as the ability to produce novel and socially valued ideas or objects
Creativity and Intelligence – Early studies suggested that there was little relationship between the two, however, later research indicates otherwise: creative individuals tend to have higher IQs AND creative individuals are perceived as being more intelligent as well.
IQ of at least 120 required to be creative, but it doesn’t mean you will be!
Convicted murderer Phil Spector was seen as a creative genius in his heyday. Creativity and evil, however, can go hand in hand (as does large hair).

9. Creativity Creativity Tests – Sternberg’s Components of creativity
Open-ended questions; scoring is based upon the number and originality of a person’s answers
Torrance Test – Individuals explain a picture, its origins, and consequences
Mednick’s Remote Association Test (RAT) – given three words – you come up with a fourth word that the other three can be combined with e.g. hand, lone, win (answer = some)
Sternberg’s Components of creativity
Expertise
Imaginative thinking skills
A venturesome personality
Intrinsic motivation
A creative environment

10. Contemporary Theories of Intelligence
Daniel Goleman
Proposed theory of emotional Intelligence
Emotional intelligence has five components
Knowing one’s own emotions
Managing one’s own emotions
Using emotions to motivate oneself
Recognizing the emotions of other people
Managing relationships
Does emotional intelligence go too far?

11. Comparing Contemporary Theories
Gardner’s Multiple Intelligences
Sternberg’s Triarchic Intelligences
Goleman’s Emotional Intelligence
Logical-Mathematical
Linguistic
Analytical
Spatial
Musical
Body-Kinesthetic
Creative
Interpersonal
Practical
Recognizing emotions in others and managing relationships
Intrapersonal
Knowing, managing, and motivating yourself with emotions

12. Can Intelligence Be Neurologically Measured?
Brain size seems to be modestly correlated with intelligence, but this is not always the case
Specific brain areas such as frontal and parietal lobes seem to be important regions
The varying sizes of brain structure could result from nature and/or nurture
Perceptual speed tends to indicate intelligence
Neurological speed also tends to indicate intelligence
Ubersexy Lord Byron was not only emo, beautiful and brilliant, but his brain was massive to boot!

13. INTELLIGENCE TESTS: BINET AND SIMON
First test of intelligence, developed to identify children who might have difficulty in school
Binet developed the concept of mental age in children
Mental Age = age at which you perform intellectually - may or may not correspond with chronological age
Goal was to use intelligence tests to improve children’s educational experience – not limit their opportunities with harmful labels

14. INTELLIGENCE TESTS: STANFORD-BINET INTELLIGENCE SCALE
Lewis M. Terman’s adaptation of the Binet- Simon scale
Terman’s goal was to measure “inherited intelligence” for purpose of eugenics
The test was used on immigrants and army recruits
Results interpreted as justifying superiority of Anglo-Saxon people
Used to justify limits set on immigrants from southern and eastern Europe
Stanford-Binet measures four kinds of mental abilities
Verbal reasoning
Abstract/visual reasoning
Quantitative reasoning
Short-term memory
BIAS! BOOOOO! 14

15. INTELLIGENCE TESTS: STANFORD-BINET INTELLIGENCE SCALE
Terman’s work served as the basis for William Stern of Germany to develop the concept of IQ, or Intelligence Quotient
IQ = Mental Age/Chronological Age x 100
Most common IQ score?
Problem of IQ calculation beyond adulthood solved through comparison with norms for every age group
Sample Problems:
Mental Age = 8, Chronological age = 6, IQ = ?
IQ = 150, Chronological age = 4. Mental age = ? 15

16. EUGENICS MOVEMENT: POLITICIZED “SCIENCE”

17. INTELLIGENCE TESTS: WESCHLER SCALES
The Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale (WAIS) is the most commonly used test of intelligence for adults
WAIS is divided into to 11 parts that focus on verbal abilities and on performance skills
Also a version for children, Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children (WISC)

18. INTELLIGENCE TESTS: The Wechsler Test WESCHLER SCALES

19. Woodcock-Johnson Test of Cognitive Abilities
Yields a measure of general intellectual ability (GIA)
Areas of assessment:
Comprehension-Knowledge
Long-Term Retrieval
Visual-Spatial Thinking
Auditory Processing
Fluid Reasoning
Processing Speed
Short-Term Memory
Quantitative Knowledge
Reading-Writing
Developed in 1977 by Richard Woodcock and Mary E. Bonner Johnson
Several revisions – most recent in 2014 (WJ-IV)
Appropriate for people age 2-90
Assesses several cognitive abilities based on 20 different subtests

20. APTITUDE VS. ACHIEVEMENT?
Achievement tests measure what you have already learned
Aptitude tests measure your potential to learn.
There is a positive correlation between aptitude tests results and intelligence tests.
e.g. correlation between SAT and IQ?

21. PRINCIPLES OF TEST CONSTRUCTION
All good intelligence must be all three of the following:
Standardized
Reliable
Valid
Standardization - uniform rules for administering, taking and scoring the test based on comparing performance to that of a pretested group.
Norms – performance benchmarks established during test development used to establish “average” performance.
Representative Sample – group used to establish norms that adequately reflects the demographics of those who will be taking the test.
Standardization Sample – the group that determined the norms

22. PRINCIPLES OF TEST CONSTRUCTION
In a standardized intelligence test, scores should be distributed in a bell-shaped curve, or normal curve.
Most individuals taking intelligence tests should score a 100, with the majority falling between
Due to the Flynn Effect, intelligence tests must be periodically restandardized to keep norms valid. 22

23. PRINCIPLES OF TEST CONSTRUCTION
Reliability - Ability of a test to provide consistent and stable scores
Test-retest reliability – a method of measuring reliability where the same individual is given the test on two different occasions and scores are compared. Similarity in scores indicates good test-retest reliability
Split-half reliability – method of measuring reliability where the individual takes one test that is divided in half. Performance on each half is compared for similarity.
Alternate-form reliability – two different but similar forms of the test are given on separate occasions and scores are compared for similarity.

24. PRINCIPLES OF TEST CONSTRUCTION
Validity - Ability of a test to measure what it purports to measure
Content validity – tests ability to cover the complete range of material (content) it is supposed to measure
Predictive validity – how well a test score predicts an individual’s performance in the future
Correlation between SAT scores and first-year grades in college? +.5 – not great!
Correlation between GRE and grad school grades? +.4 – even worse! 24

25. Scoring the IQ Test
Raw Score - number of questions answered correctly; doesn’t tell much about performance
Standard Score - score that tells you how you did compared to other test takers – a much better read of performance
Percentile Score - what percentage of test takers you scored better than
What does it mean to score in the 85th percentile?

26. INTELLIGENCE: STABILITY OR CHANGE?
Intellectual ability does not seem to stabilize until age 7, but by age 4 performance on intelligence tests seems to predict future performance
Ian Deary study seems to establish that intelligence does remain relatively stable over time.
All year-olds in Scotland tested in 1932
Follow up on the survivors done as recently as 2004 indicates intelligence tests remained consistent

27. EXTREMES OF INTELLIGENCE: GIFTEDNESS
Definition
top 3% of IQ scores, typically over 132,
Superior IQ combined with ability in academics, creativity, and leadership
Giftedness is often in specific areas
“Globally” gifted people are rare
Some gifted children feel isolated and lonely, but most are well adjusted
Specialized Programs of Study?

28. EXTREMES OF INTELLIGENCE: MENTAL RETARDATION (INTELLECTUAL DISABILITY)
Definition
IQ < 70; lowest 3% of IQ scores
not a result of accident
onset before age 18
substantial limitations in functioning
Causes – drug abuse during pregnancy, genetic disorders such as Down Syndrome, lack of fetal nutrition
Levels
Mild - 90% of cases
Moderate - 6% of cases
Severe - 3% of cases
Profound - 1% of cases
Some people with retardation show savant performance on particular skills

29. EXTREMES OF INTELLIGENCE: MENTAL RETARDATION (INTELLECTUAL DISBAILITY)

30. Education and the Law
All children are entitled to an education that is…
FREE
PUBLIC
APPROPRIATE
Mainstreaming
keeping special needs kids in regular ed classes for whatever subject areas/activities they can handle
Inclusion
rather than taking special needs kids out of regular ed classes for support, bring support personnel into regular ed classes so kids can stay with their peers.
Leveling
separating children by ability into different classes

31. Criticisms of IQ Tests Halo Effect Test content and scores
Critics argue that IQ test measure a narrow set of skills
Some feel that the tests merely measure test taking ability
Tests may discriminate against minorities
Use of intelligence tests
Could result in permanent labeling
IQ and success
Relationship does exist, but may be the result of a self-fulfilling prophecy
Bias and the cases of Alicia P. and Gladys Burr?

32. DETERMINANTS OF INTELLIGENCE: NATURE
Biological similarities in Adoption Studies
IQ scores of child more closely correlated with biological mother than adoptive mother.
Identical Twins reared apart
after identical twins reared together, identical twins reared apart have the highest correlation of IQ scores.
Tryon’s Rats nature…AND NURTURE…

33. Correlation of IQ Scores of Family Members

34. DETERMINANTS OF INTELLIGENCE: NURTURE
Isolated or Deprived Environments
individuals living in culturally or physically impoverished environments have lower IQ scores
Adoption Studies and Improved Environment
children demonstrated elevated IQ scores after being moved from crowded orphanage to distributing them into less crowded adult wards
H.M. Skeels orphanange study
Capron and Duyme’s adoption study high vs. low SES

35. DETERMINANTS OF INTELLIGENCE: FAMILY SIZE AND STRUCTURE
Belmont and Marolla (1973)
Family size and IQ scores?
The more the merrier? Perhaps…but not necessarily smarter!
Zajonc and Markus (1975)
Intellectual Climate – numerical calculation of the level of intellect in a household, based on the number of family members and their ages. Example Calculation – adults = 30, teens = 15, children = 5, and newborns = 0:
2 adults:
30+30=60/2=intellectual climate of 30
2 adults and a newborn:
=60/3=intellectual climate of 20
Intellectual climate goes down most when there are many children born in rapid succession.

36. Heredity vs. Environment: Which is More Important?
There is general agreement that both heredity and environment affect IQ scores
Debate centers around the relative contribution of nature (heredity) and nurture (environment) to the development of intelligence

37. DETERMINANTS OF INTELLIGENCE: SEX
Early Research (1970s)
males excel at math/spatial skill while females excel at verbal
Hyde and Linn’s Meta-analysis (1988)
intellectual differences between males and females are so small that they are not statistically significant.
Today’s Conclusions
Overall, men and women do not differ significantly in general intelligence
Women show slight advantage in verbal and mathematical computation skills while men show an advantage in spatial ability
Men are more likely to fall in the extremes of intelligence range
There is no explanation for why these minimal differences exist – are they cultural or inborn?

38. DETERMINANTS OF INTELLIGENCE: CULTURE
Difference in academic performance between American and Asian students are found from first grade through high school in mathematics and reading
May be related to a difference in cultural attitudes toward ability and effort
Stability of Intelligence
IQ stays relatively steady over course of life