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Motivation

2. Motivation Defining motivation
An inferred process within a person or animal that causes movement either toward a goal or away from an unpleasant situation.
Intrinsic motivation: The pursuit of an activity for its own sake.
Extrinsic motivation: The pursuit of an activity for external rewards, such as money or fame.

3. The Hungry Animal Motives to eat
How much do genes, psychology, and the environment affect our motivation to eat?

4. The Hungry Animal, cont’ LO12
The Hungry Animal, cont’ LO12.1 Discuss the biological factors that contribute to weight, and define what a set point is.
The genetics of weight
Heavy people are no more or less emotionally disturbed than average weight people.
Heaviness is not always caused by overeating.
Set point C-level
The genetically influenced weight range for an individual; it is maintained by biological mechanisms that regulate food intake, fat reserves, and metabolism.

5. The Hungry Animal, cont’ LO12
The Hungry Animal, cont’ LO12.1 Discuss the biological factors that contribute to weight, and define what a set point is.
Body weight of twins
Identical twins are more similar in body weight than fraternal twins.
Whether raised together or apart
Genetic factors play a large role in body weight.

6. The Hungry Animal, cont’ LO12
The Hungry Animal, cont’ LO12.1 Discuss the biological factors that contribute to weight, and define what a set point is.
The role of leptin
Leptin alters the brain chemistry that influences how animals eat as adults.
Regulates weight by strengthening neural circuits in hypothalamus that reduce appetite and weakening neural circuits that strengthen appetite.
Has led to hypothesis that overfeeding infants while hypothalamus is developing may produce childhood obesity.

7. The Hungry Animal, cont’ LO12
The Hungry Animal, cont’ LO12.1 Discuss the biological factors that contribute to weight, and define what a set point is.
The complexity of weight
Appetite suppressants alone often fail to help individuals lose weight.
Other factors
Other genes and body chemicals
Hormones which regulate hunger
Receptors in nose, mouth, and stomach

8. The Hungry Animal, cont’ LO12
The Hungry Animal, cont’ LO12.1 Discuss the biological factors that contribute to weight, and define what a set point is.
The overweight debate
Weight or fitness?
Many researchers believe that individuals who are overweight and physically fit are actually healthier than individuals who are sedentary and thin.

9. The Hungry Animal, cont’ LO12
The Hungry Animal, cont’ LO12.2 Discuss five major environmental influences on weight, and provide an example of each.
Environmental influences on weight
Increased abundance of fast food
Widespread consumption of high-sugar, high-calorie soft drinks
Sharp decline in exercise and other expenditures
of energy
Increased portion sizes of food and drink
Abundance of highly varied foods

10. The Hungry Animal, cont’ LO12
The Hungry Animal, cont’ LO12.2 Discuss five major environmental influences on weight, and provide an example of each.
Cultural attitudes
In many cultures, where food is a rarer commodity, fat is viewed as a sign of health and affluence in men, sexual desirability in women.
Although people of all ethnicities and social classes have been getting heavier, the cultural ideal for white women has been getting thinner.
The cultural ideal for men has also changed.
Muscles used to mean working class, now muscular bodies symbolize affluence.

11. The Hungry Animal, cont’ LO12
The Hungry Animal, cont’ LO12.3 Distinguish between anorexia nervosa and bulimia nervosa, and discuss some factors that contribute to each disorder.
Eating disorders
Bulimia: An eating disorder characterized by episodes of excessive eating (bingeing) followed by forced vomiting or use of laxatives (purging).
Anorexia nervosa: An eating disorder characterized by fear of being fat, a distorted body image, radically reduced consumption of food, and emaciation.

12. The Social Animal LO12.4 Describe how passionate love, compassionate love, social bonding, and the action of vasopressin and oxytocin all contribute to or understanding of the biology of love.
The biology of love
Neurological origins of passionate love begin in infancy when infants attach to the mother.
Certain neurotransmitters and hormones involved in pleasure and reward are activated in mother-baby, adult lover, and close friend bonds.
Vasopressin, oxytocin, endorphins
Functional fMRIs have shown other neurological similarities.
Certain parts of the brain activate when people look at pictures of sweethearts and biological children.

13. The Social Animal, cont’ LO12
The Social Animal, cont’ LO12.5 Explain how attachment theory can be applied to adult romantic relationships.
The psychology of love
Predictors of love
Proximity: choosing friends and lovers from the set of people who are closest to us
Similarity: choosing friends and lovers who are like us in looks, attitudes, beliefs, personality, and interests

14. The Social Animal, cont’ LO12
The Social Animal, cont’ LO12.5 Explain how attachment theory can be applied to adult romantic relationships.
The attachment theory of love
Like infants to their caregivers, adults have attachment styles to their partners.
Secure: rarely jealous or worried about abandonment
Avoidant: distrustful, avoids intimate attachments
Anxious-ambivalent: agitated and worried partner will leave

15. The Social Animal, cont’ LO12
The Social Animal, cont’ LO12.5 Explain how attachment theory can be applied to adult romantic relationships.
The ingredients of love
Intimacy
Based on deep knowledge of the other person, which accumulates gradually
Passion
Based on emotion, which is generated by novelty and change
Commitment

16. The Social Animal, cont’ LO12
The Social Animal, cont’ LO12.5 Explain how attachment theory can be applied to adult romantic relationships.
The psychological factors of love
Perception, by both partners, that the relationship is fair, rewarding, and balanced.
Motivation
Positive: to enjoy affection and intimacy
Negative: to avoid feeling insecure and lonely

17. The Social Animal, cont’ LO12
The Social Animal, cont’ LO12.6 Summarize the research on gender differences and cultural differences in romantic relationships.
Gender, culture, love
Males and females respond similarly to:
Love at first sight
Passionate love
Companionate love
Unrequited love
Secure and insecure attachment
Being the break-up recipient

18. The Social Animal, cont’ LO12
The Social Animal, cont’ LO12.6 Summarize the research on gender differences and cultural differences in romantic relationships.
Gender, culture, love, cont’
Men and women differ in how they express love.
Men–doing; women–saying
Men and women used to have different goals in choices of partners.
Men–more romantic; women–more pragmatic
As more women have become economically self-sufficient, differences have decreased.

19. The Erotic Animal LO12.7 Describe how early efforts at sex research both illuminated and complicated our views of human sexuality.
Biology and desire
Kinsey suggested that males and females had similar orgasms.
Masters and Johnson asserted that women’s capacity for sexual responses surpassed men’s.
But didn’t examine differences based on developmental, experiential, or cultural factors

20. The Erotic Animal, cont’ LO12
The Erotic Animal, cont’ LO12.7 Describe how early efforts at sex research both illuminated and complicated our views of human sexuality.
Hormones and sexual response
Testosterone appears to promote sexual desire in both sexes.
However, this is not a simple relationship.
Sexual behavior also increases testosterone.
Psychological factors are usually more important than hormones.
Sexual offenders who are chemically castrated don’t always lose sexual desires.

21. The Erotic Animal, cont’ LO12
The Erotic Animal, cont’ LO12.7 Describe how early efforts at sex research both illuminated and complicated our views of human sexuality.
Sex and the sex drive
Physiological responses don’t always correlate with subjective experiences.
Psychologists still disagree on whether there are sex differences in sex drive.
Social psychologists suggest
Males’ sexual behavior is more biologically determined.
Females’ sexual desires and responsiveness are more affected by circumstances, the specific relationship, and cultural norms.

22. The Erotic Animal, cont’ LO12
The Erotic Animal, cont’ LO12.8 Describe how biology, culture, hormones, and expectations might all contribute to findings regarding differences in the sexuality of women and men.
The psychology of desire
People’s motives for having sex affect many aspects of their sexual behavior, including whether they engage in sex in the first place.
Extrinsic motives also come into play.

23. The Erotic Animal, cont’ LO12
The Erotic Animal, cont’ LO12.9 Discuss six motives for sex and three motives for rape.
Motives for sex
Pleasure
Intimacy
Insecurity
Partner approval
Peer approval
Attaining a goal

24. The Erotic Animal, cont’ LO12
The Erotic Animal, cont’ LO12.9 Discuss six motives for sex and three motives for rape.
Sexual coercion and rape
Persistent gender differences occur in perceptions of, and experiences with, sexual coercion.
Of a representative sample of 16,507 adults, 1 in 5 women said they had been raped or experienced attempted rape at least once.
Men also reported being victimized; 1 in 7 said they had been severely beaten by a partner.

25. The Erotic Animal, cont’ LO12
The Erotic Animal, cont’ LO12.9 Discuss six motives for sex and three motives for rape.
Motivations for rape
Narcissism and hostility toward women
A desire to dominate, humiliate, or punish the victim
Sadism

26. The Erotic Animal, cont’ LO12
The Erotic Animal, cont’ LO12.10 Explain the ways in which culture and gender contribute to sexual behavior and expectations about that behavior.
Culture of desire
Sexual scripts
Sets of implicit rules that specify proper sexual behavior for a person in a given situation, varying with the person’s gender, age, sexual orientation, religion, social status, and peer group.

27. The Erotic Animal, cont’ LO12
The Erotic Animal, cont’ LO12.10 Explain the ways in which culture and gender contribute to sexual behavior and expectations about that behavior.
Biological explanations
Prenatal exposure and androgens
May be moderately heritable

28. The Erotic Animal, cont’ LO12
The Erotic Animal, cont’ LO12.10 Explain the ways in which culture and gender contribute to sexual behavior and expectations about that behavior.
Difficulty in identifying causes
Sexual identity and behavior are different and occur in different combinations.
Some individuals are sexually attracted to both men and women.
Some individuals are heterosexual in behavior but have homosexual fantasies.
Sexual behaviors can differ in different cultures.

29. The Competent Animal LO12
The Competent Animal LO12.11 Describe three conditions that make goal-setting and goal-achievement successful, and distinguish between performance goals and mastery goals.
Importance of goals
Goals improve motivation when…
the goal is specific.
the goal is challenging but achievable.
the goal is framed in terms of getting what you want rather than avoiding what you do not want.
Approach goals
Goals framed in terms of desired outcomes or experiences, such as learning to scuba dive.
Avoidance goals
Goals framed in terms of avoiding unpleasant experiences, such as trying not to look foolish in public.

30. The Competent Animal, cont’ LO12
The Competent Animal, cont’ LO12.11 Describe three conditions that make goal-setting and goal-achievement successful, and distinguish between performance goals and mastery goals.
Types of goals
Performance goals
Goals framed in terms of performing well in front of others, being judged favorably, and avoiding criticism.
Mastery (learning) goals
Goals framed in terms of increasing one’s competence and skills.

31. The Competent Animal, cont’ LO12
The Competent Animal, cont’ LO12.11 Describe three conditions that make goal-setting and goal-achievement successful, and distinguish between performance goals and mastery goals.
Mastery and motivation

32. The Competent Animal, cont’ LO12
The Competent Animal, cont’ LO12.12 Explain the elements of a self-fulfilling prophecy, and offer suggestions for how to break that cycle.
Expectations and self-efficacy
Self-fulfilling prophecy
An expectation that comes true because of the tendency to act in ways that bring it about.
Self-efficacy
A person’s belief that he or she is capable of producing desired results, such as mastering new skills and reaching goals.

33. The Competent Animal, cont’ LO12
The Competent Animal, cont’ LO12.13 Describe how working conditions affect motives to achieve.
Working conditions
Conditions that increase job involvement, motivation, and satisfaction
Work provides a sense of meaningfulness
Employees have control over part of their work
Tasks are varied
Employees have supportive relationships with superiors and co-workers
Employees receive useful feedback
Company offers opportunities for growth

34. The Competent Animal, cont’ LO12
The Competent Animal, cont’ LO12.13 Describe how working conditions affect motives to achieve.
Opportunities to achieve
When a person lacks a fair chance to make it, he or she may be less than successful.

35. Motives, values, and the pursuit of happiness
Motives, Values, and the Pursuit of Happiness LO12.14 Discuss how accurate people are at estimating the type, duration, and extent of their future emotions, and comment on what research indicates makes people happy.
Motives, values, and the pursuit of happiness

36. Motivational conflicts
Motives, Values, and the Pursuit of Happiness, cont’ LO12.15 Describe three types of motivational conflicts people often face, and give an example of each.
Motivational conflicts
Approach–approach conflicts
Occur when you are equally attracted to two or more possible activities or goals
Avoidance-avoidance conflicts
Require you to choose between the lesser of two evils because you dislike both alternatives
Approach-avoidance conflicts
Occur when a single activity or goal has both a positive and a negative aspect

37. How to attain your goals
Motives, Values, and the Pursuit of Happiness, cont’ LO12.15 Describe three types of motivational conflicts people often face, and give an example of each.
How to attain your goals
Seek activities that are intrinsically pleasurable.
Focus on learning goals, not only on performance goals.
Assess your working conditions.
Take steps to resolve motivational conflicts.