1. Collective goods and regimes
Environment
Collective goods and regimes

2. Collective goods are hard to provide
Free rider problem
Everyone has individual incentive to “consume”
Collective welfare suffers
“Tragedy of commons”
Garrett Hardin
A neo Malthusian argues that individual rationality will doom the collective good

3. Tragedy of the Commons

4. Averting the tragedy? Legal-coercive* Positive sanctions* Privatize*
Educate
Institutions*
Unilateral action*
(Often solutions are a mix of two or more)

5. Legal-coercive Regimes & Conventions
For example: CITES
Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species
There is a legal framework, but punishment is indirect and must be wielded by states, typically through economic sanctions
Regimes are defined as a combination of the actors involved together with the ideas they share about problems and the institutions they create to deal with them.

6. Process of regime building
4. Strengthening
3. Bargaining
2. Fact finding
1. Issue definition

7. 1. Issue definition Agenda created: by one or more states by an IGO
eg 1977 Ozone Depleting Substances (ODS) conference sponsored by UNEP
by an NGO
Framework Climate Change Ctee has a long list

8. 2. Fact finding Sometimes coordinated by IGO
May be challenged and bargained
UNEP set up coordinating committee to evaluate scientific research on ozone

9. 3. Bargaining Outcomes depend on strength of coalitions
Most issues have a leading group & veto group
If consensus not reached: regime may go ahead without key players … but weak
eg Climate Change and US “veto”

10. 4. Strengthening Continuous process Science may help
“Protocol” to set targets/timetable
Convention
Review Conference may push for stronger action

11. Ozone Depletion 1985 Vienna Convention strengthened by
1987 Montreal Protocol
“far-reaching restrictions”
“precautionary principle”
Industrial countries agreed to cut CFCs in half by 1998

12. Strengthening ozone regime
1990 London : full end to CFCs and HCFCs by 2000
interim multilateral fund $240m for LDCs
1993 Bangkok: phase out bromide
1995 Vienna: methyl bromide

13. Still strengthening 1997 Montreal: 9th review of protocol
celebrating 10th anniversary
but 1996 Antarctic hole bigger than ever
illegal trade in ODS ozone depleting substances
worries about underfunding

14. Why strong ozone regime?
Solutions simple
cut cfc production
Clear compliance mechanisms
monitor production and trade
1/5 CFC trade in black market in 1995
Effective leadership
UNEP Tolba
External shocks or crises
Image of ozone layer + cancer rates

15. Image of ozone depletion

16. Climate Change issue definition
A weaker image
Clearly exponential
But proof of human cause?

17. Climate regime? No simple solutions
CO2 emissions linked to overall economic activity
Have to challenge assumptions of capitalist growth
Modest targets and uneven compliance

18. Climate change politics
Global climate, but sovereign interests
Lead group: EU
Two veto coalitions:
LDCs
[especially India & China]
JUSCANZ
Japan, US, Canada, Australia, New Zealand
BBC chart on emissions

19. Kyoto 1997: Weak Conference of Parties [COP] to Framework Convention on Climate Change
industrialized countries to cut by 5.2% from 1990 levels between
Range of targets
+8% for Australia, -8% for Europe (on average)
Trading in emissions credits allowed
Clean Development Mechanism (CDM)
Allows companies to get credits for clean energy projects in LDCS
Carbon sinks
Credits for forests!

20. Kyoto -> compromise
No LDCs commitments to reduce emissions
No reporting, enforcement, penalties
Reductions agreed were too low to have effect!
No Rules/cap on emissions trading

21. Kyoto eroding George Bush pulled US out
March 2001 newsclip
US voluntary approach (Pew Centre)
Russian ratification needed to give Kyoto legal status
Framework Convention on Climate Change ratification “barometer”

22. CITES Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species
Latin treaty text
Common name search
Appendix I,II,III
Lists of Parties
Biannual Conference
Sample proceedings
Article VIII measures
penalize trade/possession
confiscation
reimburse
record
report

23. Criticism of CITES Ineffective Drives trade underground
“Reserves” are like zoos
Tourism cost-benefit

24. Example of bargaining: ivory
1988 WWF and Conservation international called for world ban
NGOs wanted elephants on Appendix I
Sustainable: 50m tons ivory per yr (consumption 770m tons/yr)

25. CITES Ivory Aftermath
Japan expected to veto, but complied under pressure from NGOs, US & EU and cut all imports
Ivory prices plunged 90%
Southern Africa not an effective veto coalition: market forces led to change
Some illegal trade persists

26. Whales
weak initial regime permitted virtually unregulated exploitation of an endangered species
Now “global conservation regime” despite veto coalition led by Japan

27. International Whaling Commission
IWC began as a “Whalers club”
Secret meetings
“Quotas” allowed kill rate to double
World Council of Whalers
No consensus on facts
IWC “science” committee supported kills
Meanwhile, blue whale almost extinct

28. Action US lead state 1972 moratorium at Stockholm conference
Impelled by own 1969 Endangered Species Act
Declared 8 species endangered in 1970
1972 moratorium at Stockholm conference
IWC defeated similar proposal 6-4 (4 abstentions)
Veto coalition: Norway, Japan, USSR, Iceland, Chile, Peru
Non-whaling states were recruited onto IWC
Created ¾ majority needed for IWC ban

29. Veto coalition action commercial whaling ended by 1987/88
But Japan, Iceland & Norway began “scientific” hunt
No US response
no sanctions on Japan (trade reprisals?)
No sanctions on Iceland (USAF base Reykjavik)
Consumer action achieved halt until 1991
USSR continued as before, with false reports

30. Regime strengthened?
1994 IWC meeting: long-term ban on whaling below 40 degrees south
Sanctuary for 90% estimated 3.5m remaining great whales
Japan and Norway defy ban
1997 Norway killed 5x as many as in 1992
Japan hunting in Antarctic sanctuary
300 minkes a year “scientific” catch
Sales of $50m in 1997!

31. Regime change
1997 Ireland proposed ending ban and bringing commercial whaling back under “Revised Management Procedure”
Allow catches up to 1% estimated population
Whale population estimates
NGOs worried that Irish plan would increase commercial whaling
Urged moratorium for 50 yrs

32. Dilemma To endorse commercial whaling and reduce kill
Or to ban it, while whale kills are still rising

33. Climate Links IPCC Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change BBC quiz!
Speech by Chair at 20th Session Feb ‘03
Reports
BBC quiz!
UNFCC

34. Other Links UNEP WMO WWF Greenpeace Sierra Club conventions
World Me. Org
WWF
World Wildlife Fund
Greenpeace
Sierra Club