AP AMERICAN GOVERNMENT

AP AMERICAN GOVERNMENT
Unit One Political Culture, Ideology, and Structure

Unit Objectives Defining Democracy
LO 3.1 Unit Objectives Defining Democracy 1.1 Differentiate democracy from other forms of government. Defining the American Political Culture 1.2 Identify the most important elements of and sources for the American political culture. Political Attitudes and Ideology 1.3 Compare and contrast political ideologies and evaluate the critiques of each ideology. Political Ideology and the American People 1.4 Assess the importance of political ideology and contemporary American politics. Back to learning objectives

Chapter 4: American Political Culture and Ideology
Lecture Tips and Discussions Identify essential values and norms that make up political culture. Assign students into groups representing these norms and values. Let each group discuss certain characteristics that make their values and norms unique from each other. Assign students to groups representing an ideology. Each group should make a presentation on why their ideology is best for the American people. Students should identify each of the following beliefs as either conservative or liberal: belief that government can bring about equality of opportunity; belief that some government intervention in the economy is necessary to remedy the defects of capitalism; pessimistic view of human nature; preference for greater environmental protection; belief in keeping government small, especially the national government; preference for business; preference for individual choice in moral issues such as same-sex marriage and abortion; belief that the primary task of government is to ensure order. Objectives: Defining the American Political Culture LO 4.1 Identify the most important elements of and sources for the American political culture. Political Attitudes and Ideology LO 4.2 Compare and contrast political ideologies and evaluate the critiques of each ideology. Political Ideology and the American People LO 4.3 Assess the importance of political ideology and contemporary American politics.

ARISTOTLE

NATION POLITICS POWER LEGITIMACY AUTHORITY GOVERNMENT
A self-identifying group of people who share something in common (history, language, culture, religion) The process by which groups make decisions. Although generally applied governments, politics concerns all human group interactions. The ability of one person to get another person to do act in accordance with the first person’s wishes and intentions. Acceptance by the citizens that their state has the right to pass and enforce rules. Legitimate right to exercise political power over a group of people or geographic region. The organization with the authority to make laws, adjudicate disputes, and has a monopoly of authorized force to enforce its decisions.

TASKS OF GOVERNMENT Maintain order Protect Society Provide public services Regulate the economy

TYPES OF GOVERNMENT Autocracy Oligarchy Republic Democracy
Dictatorship Monarchy Oligarchy Aristocracy Republic Indirect or Representative Democracy Direct

Thomas Hobbes Leviathan 1651
“Life is nasty, brutish, and short. Contracts without the threat of the sword are only words; the will of the sovereign must be absolute law.”

Jean Jacques Rousseau The Social Contract 1748
The state must be all-inclusive, small enough for every citizen to know every other citizen, and no decision should be made without fully-informed, free discussion in which citizens exercise their social conscience—or empathy—to determine the general will of the people.

Defining the American Political Culture
LO 4.1 Defining the American Political Culture LO 4.1 Identify the most important elements of and sources for the American political culture. Other elements of our political culture are learned in the family or from peers. Many important elements of our political culture are widely shared by Americans, others are evolving, and some are no longer widely shared. We can discover the specifics of a nation’s political culture not only by studying what its people believe and say but also by serving how they behave. That behavior includes such fundamental decisions as who may participate in political decisions, what rights and liberties citizens have, how political decisions are made, and what people think about politicians and government generally. Some elements of our political culture—such as our fear of concentrated power and our reverence for individual liberty—have remained constant over time. However, as discussed in the introduction, our ideas about suffrage, the right to vote, have changed from a belief that only property-owning white men should be allowed to vote to a conviction that all adults, excluding felons in some states, should have the right. The idea of people coming together listening to each other, exchanging ideas, learning to appreciate each other’s differences, and defending their opinions is sometimes called deliberation and builds what has been called social capital. American political culture centers on democratic values such as liberty, equality, individualism, justice, the rule of law, patriotism, optimism, and idealism. Back to learning objectives Copyright © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. Publishing as Longman

The Declaration of Independence
What are Americans common political values?

The Declaration of Independence 1776
We hold these truths to be self-evident, that all men are created equal, that they are endowed by their Creator with certain unalienable Rights, that among these are Life, Liberty and the pursuit of Happiness.--That to secure these rights, Governments are instituted among Men, deriving their just powers from the consent of the governed, --That whenever any Form of Government becomes destructive of these ends, it is the Right of the People to alter or to abolish it, and to institute new Government, laying its foundation on such principles and organizing its powers in such form, as to them shall seem most likely to effect their Safety and Happiness.

American Political Values
Liberty – Natural Rights and Freedom of Choice Equality – equal vote; equal opportunity Individualism – individuals are responsible for their own actions and well-being Democracy – government accountable to the people Civic duty –citizens should participate in politics Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved.

American Political Culture
Assertion of individual rights Strong belief in equality Emphasis on fairness and competition A shared commitment to individualism Belief that government is responsible to the citizens Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved.

However . . . Americans support the free market, but believe in some limits Americans believe in equality of opportunity but not necessarily equality of results Americans generally believe more strongly in political than in economic equality Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved.

Political Efficacy Political efficacy: citizen’s capacity to understand and influence political events Internal efficacy: confidence in one’s ability to understand and influence events External efficacy: belief that system will respond to citizens Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved.

Mistrust of Government
Increased mistrust since the 1960s Causes: Watergate, Vietnam War, Clinton impeachment, Iraq War Confidence in government changes, but not confidence in American System Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved.

Figure 4.1: Trust in the Federal Government, 1968-2009
Insert figure 4.1 University of Michigan, The National Election Studies. Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved.

Figure 4.3: Changes in the Sense of Political Efficacy, 1952-2000

What is The American Dream?
LO 4.1 Defining the American Political Culture The American Dream holds that the United States is a land of opportunity where individual initiative and hard work can bring economic success Closely related to the American Dream is our enthusiasm for capitalism, an economic system based on private property, competitive markets, economic incentives, and limited government involvement in the production, pricing, and distribution of goods and services. We assume that people who have more ability or who work hard will get ahead, earn more, and enjoy economic rewards. We also believe that people in the United States should be able to pass most of the wealth they have accumulated along to their children and relatives In the United States, individuals and corporations have acquired wealth and, at the same time, exercised political clout. The conflict in values between a competitive economy, in which individuals reap large rewards for their initiative and hard work, and an egalitarian society, in which everyone earns a decent living, carries over into politics. The gap between rich and poor has grown in recent years, and a sharp income difference between whites and blacks remains tenacious. For more people than we want to admit, chances for success still depend on the family they were born into, the neighborhood they grew up in, or the college they attended. What is The American Dream? Back to learning objectives

Political Socialization
Political socialization: the process by which personal and other background traits influence one’s views about politics and government Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved.

AP AMERICAN GOVERNMENT
Unit One Part 3 Political Culture, Ideology, and Structure

Political Ideology and Attitudes Toward Government LO 4
Political Ideology and Attitudes Toward Government LO 4.2 Compare and contrast political ideologies and evaluate the critiques of each ideology. LO 4.2 Political ideology refers to a consistent pattern of ideas or beliefs about political values and the role of government, including how it should work and how it actually does work. Two major schools of political ideology dominate American politics: liberalism and conservatism. Two less popular schools of thought—socialism and libertarianism—also help define the spectrum of ideology. In the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries, classical liberals favored limited government. Contemporary Liberals—In its current U.S. usage, liberalism refers to a belief that government can bring about justice and equality of opportunity. Belief in private property rights and free enterprise are cardinal attributes of contemporary conservatism. Traditional Conservatives are emphatically pro-business. Social Conservatives focus less on economics and more on morality and lifestyle. Socialism is an economic and governmental system based on public ownership of the means of production and exchange. German philosopher Karl Marx once described socialism as a transitional stage of society between capitalism and communism. Under communism, the state owns property in common for all the people, and a single political party that represents the working classes controls the government. Libertarianism is a political ideology that cherishes individual liberty and insists on sharply limited government. Back to learning objectives Copyright © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. Publishing as Longman

Liberals and Conservative
Pure liberals: liberal on both economic and personal conduct issues Pure conservatives: conservative on both economic and personal conduct issues Libertarians: conservative on economic issues, liberal on personal conduct issues Populists: liberal on economic issues, conservative on personal conduct issues Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved.

Two Cultural “Camps” Conservative: morality is as, or more, important than self-expression; morality derives from fixed rules. Liberal: personal freedom is as, or more, important than tradition; rules change based on circumstances of modern life and individual preferences Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved.

Political Ideology and Attitudes Toward Government
Two major schools of political ideology dominate American politics: liberalism and conservatism. Two less popular schools of thought—socialism and Libertarianism—also help define the spectrum of ideology Classical liberals: In the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries, classical liberals favored limited government and sought to protect people from governmental harassment. Contemporary Liberals—Modern-day liberals wish to preserve the rights of the individual and the right to own private property, but they believe that some government intervention in the economy is necessary to remedy the shortcomings of capitalism. Liberals generally believe that the future will be better than the past. Liberals led in expanding civil rights in the 1960s and 1970s and favor affirmative action today. Conservatives believe a small government works efficiently, the government is there to provide a strong military and legislate morality, and individuality. Conservatives take a more pessimistic view of human nature than liberals do. The primary task of government is to ensure order. Liberalism and Conservatism Liberalism: a belief that government should achieve justice and equality of opportunity Conservatism: a belief that limited government ensures order, competitive markets, and personal opportunity Back to learning objectives

Traditional Conservatives: emphatically pro-business, opposed the New Deal programs of the 1930s, the War on Poverty in the 1960s, many civil rights and affirmative action programs. Conservatives, especially those in office, do, however, selectively advocate government activism. Social Conservatives: Some conservatives focus less on economics and more on morality and lifestyle. They favor strong governmental action to protect children from pornography and drugs. They want to overturn or repeal judicial rulings and laws that permit abortion, same-sex marriage, and affirmative action programs. A defining characteristic of the New Right is a strong desire to impose social controls. Conservatives for decades have emphasized differences with liberals on social and moral matters. Liberalism and Conservatism (cont.) Traditional conservatives: emphatically pro- business Social conservatives: focus less on economics and more on morality and lifestyle Back to learning objectives

Liberals and Conservatives
Economic policy: liberals favor jobs for all, subsidized medical care and education, increased taxation of the rich Civil rights: liberals favor strong federal action to desegregate schools, hiring opportunities for minorities, and strict enforcement of civil rights laws Public and political conduct: liberals are tolerant of protest demonstrations, favor legalization of marijuana, and emphasize protecting the rights of the accused Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved.

Table 7.6: How Liberals and Conservatives Differ
Insert table 7.7 (formerly 5.7 in 9e) Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved.

Critics state that liberals rely too much on government, higher taxes, and bureaucracy to solve the nation’s problems. They believe that too much dependence on the government will prevent individuals from becoming self-reliant. They argue that liberals have forgotten that government has to be limited if it is to serve our best interests. Power tends to corrupt, and too much dependence on government can corrupt the spirit, undermine self-reliance, and make people forget those cherished personal freedoms and property rights our republic was founded to secure and protect. Criticisms of Liberalism It relies too much on government, higher taxes, and bureaucracy to solve the nation’s problems. Reliance on government can destroy individualism. Back to learning objectives

Critics point out that conservatives themselves urge more government when it serves their needs—to regulate pornography and abortion, for example—but are opposed to government when it serves somebody else. Conservative focus on deregulation has not always had positive results, as the collapse of financial markets in 2008 suggests. Liberals cite conservative opposition to civil rights laws in the 1960s and more recently to affirmative action. They also blame conservatives for trying to weaken the enforcement of these laws by the executive branch and the courts. Criticisms of Conservatism Focus on deregulation has not always worked: economic collapse in 2008. Conservatives favor more government action on their issues but not on the issues of others. Some conservatives fail to endorse policies that deal with racism and sexism. Back to learning objectives

Socialism: The nineteenth century German philosopher Karl Marx once described socialism as a midway point between capitalism and communism. In a capitalist system, the means of production and most property are privately owned. Communism: A political system in which the state owns property in common for all the people, and a single political party that represents the working classes controls the government. In communist countries such as Cuba and China, the Communist party is unchallenged. In the early 1990s, communism failed in Russia, its sister republics, and its former eastern European satellites. As a result of that failure, they have been attempting to establish free markets. Socialism and Communism Socialism: An economic and governmental system based on public ownership of the means of production and exchange. Communism: A political, social, and economic system in which land and capital are collectively owned and political power is exercised by the masses. Back to learning objectives

Libertarians oppose nearly all government programs. They favor: massive cuts in government spending, an end to the Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI), the Central Intelligence Agency (CIA), the Internal Revenue Service (IRS), and most regulatory commissions. They oppose American participation in the United Nations and favor armed forces that would defend the United States only if directly attacked. They oppose all government regulation, including, for example, mandatory seat-belt and helmet laws, in part because they believe individuals will all benefit more from an undistorted free market, and more generally because they embrace the attitude “live and let live.” Unlike conservatives, libertarians would repeal laws that regulate personal morality, including abortion, pornography, prostitution, and illicit drugs. A Libertarian party candidate for president has been on the ballot in all 50 states. Libertarianism Libertarianism : cherishes individual liberty, minimal government, a free market economy, noninterventionist foreign policy, and an absence of regulation in moral, economic, and social life. Back to learning objectives

The Gender Gap Men have become increasingly Republican since the mid-1960s Women have continued to identify with the Democratic Party at approximately the same rate since the early 1950s This reflects attitudinal differences between men and women about the size of government, gun control, social programs, and gay rights Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved.

Education From 1920s through 1960s, studies showed a college education had a liberalizing effect, possibly because of exposure to liberal elites Contemporary college students’ opinions are more complicated Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved.

Figure 7.1: Generational Insert table 5.3 Survey by Washington Post/Henry J. Kaiser Foundation/Harvard University, August 2-September 1, 2002, as reported in Elizabeth Hamel et al., "Younger Voters," Public Perspective, May/June 2003, p. 11. Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved.

Social Class Social class: ill-defined in U.S., though recognized in specific cases (e.g., truck drivers and investment bankers) Social class is less important in the U.S. than in Europe; the extent of cleavage has declined in both places Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved.

Race and Ethnicity Similarities and differences between blacks and whites are complex, but there is some evidence that they may be narrowing Latinos tend to identify as Democrats, though not as strongly as African Americans Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved.

Regional Differences White southerners were once more conservative than other regions regarding aid to minorities, legalizing marijuana, school busing, and rights of the accused Southerners are now significantly less Democratic than they were for most of the 20th century Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved.

Religion and Politics Religious beliefs have played an important role in American politics Both liberals and conservatives use the pulpit to promote political change Candidates for national office in most other contemporary democracies rarely mention religion; drastically different in the U.S. Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved.

LO 4.2 Back to learning objectives
This table displays how ideology is correlated to sex, race, age, religion, education, and political party. In which factors do you see the strongest and weakest correlations, and how might you account for that? Back to learning objectives Copyright © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. Publishing as Longman

LO 4.3 Political Ideology and the American People LO 4.3 Assess the importance of political ideology in light of competing ideas and the contemporary American context. For some people, ideological controversy today centers on the role of the government in improving schools, encouraging a stronger work ethic, and stopping the flow of drugs into the country. For others, ideology focuses on whether to permit openly gay people into the military or sanction same-sex marriages and on the best ways to instill moral values, build character, and encourage cohesive and lasting families. Despite the twists and turns of American politics, the distribution of ideology in the nation has been remarkably consistent. Moreover, in the United States, most people are moderates or report not knowing whether they are liberal or conservative. Both major parties target moderate or centrist voters. The degree to which people have ideologically consistent attitudes and opinions varies but is often relatively low. Policy making in this country is characterized more by ad hoc coalitions than by fixed alignments that pit one set of ideologies against another. Ideologies have consequences. These sharp cleavages in political thinking stir opposing interest groups into action. Back to learning objectives Copyright © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. Publishing as Longman

Political Ideology Ideology has economic, social/lifestyle, environmental, civil rights/civil liberties, and foreign/defense policy dimensions Americans may have strong predispositions, but the great majority do not think ideologically In the United States, most people are moderates or report not knowing whether they are liberal or conservative. Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved.

LO 4.3 Graph of the distribution of ideology in the United States from extremely liberal to extremely conservative showing that most are moderate, haven’t thought about it or don’t know. How does the ideology of the American people compare to that of American politicians and pundits? In what ways might this difference matter? Back to learning objectives Copyright © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. Publishing as Longman

Political Ideology and the American People
Although ideology plays an important role in Congress and in elections, the large proportion of people who are moderate and/or non-ideological permits politicians to expand their base with pragmatic appeals and to form coalitions. The absence of widespread and solidified positions makes for politics and policymaking processes that are markedly different from those in most nations Policy making in this country is characterized by ad hoc coalitions reather than fixed alignments This does not mean that policies or ideas are not important in American politics.. Back to learning objectives

LO 4.1 The idea of social capital as it applies to political culture refers to ___________. Each citizen’s rights and responsibilities Discussing and considering public matters Democratic and civic habits of discussion, compromise, and respect for media Widespread agreement on fundamental principles of democratic governance Back to learning objectives

A. Liberalism B. Conservatism C. Socialism D. Libertarianism
LO 4.2 Which of the following ideological positions would favor government ownership of the means of production and exchange? A. Liberalism B. Conservatism C. Socialism D. Libertarianism Back to learning objectives

Extremist positions in U.S. politics ___________.
LO 4.3 Extremist positions in U.S. politics ___________. force most politicians to take extremist positions on policy issues are less important in determining policy than moderate and centrist positions are more important in determining policy that moderate and centrist positions both A and C Back to learning objectives

Chapter One Political Culture

PURPOSES OF GOVERNMENT
Maintain order Protect Society Provide public services Regulate the economy

TYPES OF GOVERNMENT Autocracy Oligarchy Republic Democracy
Dictatorship Monarchy Oligarchy Aristocracy Republic Indirect or Representative Democracy Direct

TYPES OF GOVERNMENT Unitary Federal Confederal
Complete control from the center Federal Shared power between the center and the local regions Confederal Complete control by the local regions

TYPES OF GOVERNMENT Parliamentary Presidential
No separation of powers between executive, legislative, and judicial Presidential Separation of powers

Political Culture Political Culture: A distinctive and patterned way of thinking about how political and economic life ought to be carried out For example, Americans generally believe more strongly in political than in economic equality Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved.

Civic Duty and Competence
Civic duty: a belief that one has an obligation to participate in civic and political affairs Civic competence: a belief that one can affect government policies Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved.

American Political Values
Liberty – rights Equality – equal vote; equal chance to participate and succeed Democracy – government is accountable to the people Civic duty – take community affairs seriously and become involved when possible Individual responsibility – individuals responsible for their own actions and well-being Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved.

American Political Culture
Americans tend to assert their rights Emphasize individualism, competition, equality, following rules, treating others fairly but impersonally Some other countries put more emphasis on harmony and equality Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved.

Beliefs About Economics
Americans support free enterprise, but support some limits on marketplace freedom Americans believe in equality of opportunity but not equality of result Americans have a widely shared commitment to economic individualism Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved.

Sources of Political Culture
American Revolution was essentially over liberty—asserting rights Widespread (not universal) participation permitted by Constitution Absence of an established national religion made religious diversity inevitable Family instills how we think about world and politics Not a high degree of class consciousness Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved.

Political socialization: the process by which personal and other background traits influence one’s views about politics and government Family: Party identification of your family is absorbed, although children become more independent-thinking with time Religion: Families form and transmit political beliefs through their religious tradition Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved.

Political Ideology Political ideology: a more or less consistent set of beliefs about what policies government ought to pursue The great majority of Americans do not think ideologically People may have strong predispositions even if they do not satisfy the condition of being “ideological” Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved.

Liberals and Conservative
Pure liberals: liberal on both economic and personal conduct issues Pure conservatives: conservative on both economic and personal conduct issues Libertarians: conservative on economic issues, liberal on personal conduct issues Populists: liberal on economic issues, conservative on personal conduct issues Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved.

Liberals and Conservatives
Economic policy: liberals favor jobs for all, subsidized medical care and education, increased taxation of the rich Civil rights: liberals favor strong federal action to desegregate schools, hiring opportunities for minorities, and strict enforcement of civil rights laws Public and political conduct: liberals are tolerant of protest demonstrations, favor legalization of marijuana, and emphasize protecting the rights of the accused Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved.

The Gender Gap Men have become increasingly Republican since the mid-1960s Women have continued to identify with the Democratic Party at approximately the same rate since the early 1950s This reflects attitudinal differences between men and women about the size of government, gun control, social programs, and gay rights Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved.

Education From 1920s through 1960s, studies showed a college education had a liberalizing effect, possibly because of exposure to liberal elites Contemporary college students’ opinions are more complicated Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved.

Figure 7.1: Generational Gaps on the Issues
Insert table 5.3 Survey by Washington Post/Henry J. Kaiser Foundation/Harvard University, August 2-September 1, 2002, as reported in Elizabeth Hamel et al., "Younger Voters," Public Perspective, May/June 2003, p. 11. Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved.

Social Class Social class: ill-defined in U.S., though recognized in specific cases (e.g., truck drivers and investment bankers) Social class is less important in the U.S. than in Europe; the extent of cleavage has declined in both places Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved.

Race and Ethnicity Similarities and differences between blacks and whites are complex, but there is some evidence that they may be narrowing Latinos tend to identify as Democrats, though not as strongly as African Americans Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved.

Regional Differences White southerners were once more conservative than other regions regarding aid to minorities, legalizing marijuana, school busing, and rights of the accused Southerners are now significantly less Democratic than they were for most of the 20th century Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved.

Religion and Politics Religious beliefs have played an important role in American politics Both liberals and conservatives use the pulpit to promote political change Candidates for national office in most other contemporary democracies rarely mention religion; drastically different in the U.S. Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved.

Two Cultural “Camps” Conservative: morality is as, or more, important than self-expression; morality derives from fixed rules. Liberal: personal freedom is as, or more, important than tradition; rules change based on circumstances of modern life and individual preferences Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved.

Political Elites Political elites: those who have a disproportionate amount of some valued resource Elites influence public opinion by framing issues and stating norms But elite influence only goes so far; they do not define problems that are rooted in personal experience Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved.

Mistrust of Government
There is evidence that mistrust has increased since the late 1950s Causes: Watergate, the Vietnam War and Clinton impeachment Public confidence is likely to ebb and flow with circumstances No dramatic change in confidence in Americans Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved.

Figure 4.1: Trust in the Federal Government, 1958-2002

Political Efficacy Political efficacy: citizen’s capacity to understand and influence political events Internal efficacy: confidence in one’s ability to understand and influence events External efficacy: belief that system will respond to citizens Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved.

Figure 4.3: Changes in the Sense of Political Efficacy, 1952-2000

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