1. Study 1: 2016
Beauty is in the eye of the gamer: to what extent do commercial games reinforce ESL skill acquisition?

2. Introduction
Learners nowadays have a wide offer of virtual resources, shifting from text-based methods to visual-communicative input types (Gee, 2003).
Video games are widely played (155 million in USA). Traditionally engaging and progressively more accessible, employing English as the preferred language of communication in both online and offline settings.

3. Introduction
Extensive research has shown the benefits of video games in learning within the sciences and language learning from an external (evaluator) perspective.
Chen &Yang (2013): adventure video game yields increased lexicon presented in-game (which is malleable), and positive attitudes toward learning languages through a commercial platform.

4. Introduction
Corredor & Gaydos (2014): MMO´s beneficial. Demand the use of a foreign language in the establishment of a gaming community. Second-language interaction serves an instrumental value to reach goals.
Liu & Chu (2010): using ubiquitous games in a listening and speaking English course influences learning achievement and motivation more than employing traditional classroom-based methods.

5. The gap
What about the contribution of non-educational commercial games to education?
What do the players say?

6. Research aims
(1) Investigate how perceived degree of game complexity and perceived enjoyment in video games correlate with ESL skill acquisition.
(2) Establish a correlation between time spent playing specific video game categories and perceived ESL skill acquisition.
(3) Assess how content and playability of video games correlate with second-language learning.
(4) Investigate the impact human-to-human interaction has on ESL skill practice and in Role Playing Games (RPGs) and Multiplayer Online Battle Arena games (MOBAs).

7. Methodology
331 participants (non English native speakers) took online questionnaire enquiring about game-related variables (e.g. content, gameplay style, time spent playing, perceived enjoyment and complexity) and their correlation with measures of ESL skill acquisition.
Participation voluntary, anonymous.
Webropol shared over 12 days

8. Methodology Some facts: 26 nationalities
64.5% (N=213) males % (N=115) females
Mean age (SD= 6.96)
71.2% self-styled gamers
80.6% attained Bachelor´s or less
95.1% received formal English instruction

9. Methodology
Three game categories selected according to content, game pacing, playability, and quality of interaction.

10. Methodology: the games
Category 1 Games: fast-paced action and sports
Category 2 Games: single player (offline) RPGs
Category 3 Games: online RPGs and MOBA
FIFA series
Pro Evolution Soccer series
Halo series
Call of Duty series
Battlefield series
The Legend of Zelda series
The Elder Scrolls series
Final Fantasy series
Dragon Age series
Fallout series
World of Warcraft
League of Legends
Guild Wars
Runescape

11. Methodology: the categories
Category 1: Fast paced action & sports
- Fast-paced games
- Decision taking over tightly scripted scenarios
- Simple prompts and dialogues moderately vital to game progression
Vocabulary limited and context-specific
- No ample reading comprehension required
- No interaction with other human players
Category 2: Offline role-playing games
Slow/fast-paced games
Decision taking over loosely scripted scenarios with significant effect on outcome and progression
Simple/complex prompts and audio usually vital to progression
Vocabulary wide and usually not context-specific
Ampler “static” reading comprehension required
No interaction with other human players
Category 3: Online RPG´s and MOBA´s
Slow/fast paced games
Decision taking over loosely scripted /unscripted scenarios
Game progression blurred
Simple/complex prompts (CPU provided) and audio usually vital to progression
Vocabulary (CPU provided) wide and usually not content-specific
Ampler “dynamic” reading comprehension required
Interaction and role play PvP fundamental for progression. Not always game-related
Collaboration very commonly seen; necessary for game progression.

12. Analysis Independent variables Dependent variables
Fraction of total playing time per game category
Perceived degree of enjoyment within each game category
Perceived degree of difficulty/complexity within each game category
Dependent variables
Perceived impact of gaming experience in reading comprehension skill
Perceived impact of gaming experience in writing skill
Perceived impact of gaming experience in listening skill
Perceived impact of gaming experience in speaking skill
Perceived impact of gaming experience in vocabulary
TOTAL: 24 variables

13. Analysis Quasi-experimental design
Likert-type scales employed for questions: 4 items for all, except for time played (5 items).
No assumptions could be made about probabilistic distributions (no normal distribution). Thus, non parametric tests employed (Spearman´s rho), to nevertheless take statistical advantage of the broad amount of questionnaire takers
Neither factor analyses nor reliability tests required, since every variable had only one question attached. Alike variables within different game categories were treated independently.

14. Results: Independent measures
played games from Category 1
54.0% (N=179)
played games from Category 2
42.2% (N=140)
played games from Category 3
Category 1: Fast-paced
Action and Sports
Category 2: Offline RPG´s
Category 3: Online RPG´s and MOBA´s

15. Results: Correlations Category 1
Skill impacts
Game variables
Percentage of total play time spent within category 1 r
Perceived enjoyment
Perceived level of game complexity
Reading
.373
.301
.050*
Writing
.247
.249
.045*
Listening
.347
.318
.049*
Speaking
.335
.310
.007*
Vocabulary
.283
.197
.043*
All correlations significant at p<0,01; *non-significant
Addressing research aims (1) and (2)

16. Results: Correlations Category 2
Skill impacts
Game variables
Percentage of total play time spent within category 2 r
Perceived enjoyment
Perceived level of game complexity
Reading
.360
.382
.327
Writing
.353
.354
.297
Listening
.269
.299
.332
Speaking
.278
.323
.326
Vocabulary
.336
.383
.294
All correlations significant at p<0,01
Addressing research aims (1) and (2)

17. Results: Correlations Category 3
Skill impacts
Game variables
Percentage of total play time spent within category 3 r
Perceived enjoyment
Perceived level of game complexity
Reading
.421
.490
.369
Writing
.438
.487
.334
Listening
.359
.479
.370
Speaking
.399
.500
.396
Vocabulary
.430
.478
.353
All correlations significant at p<0,01
Addressing research aims (1) and (2)

18. Results: Differences between game categories
Game Category
Game Variables
Percentage of time spent
Mean r
Perceived enjoyment
Perceived level of game complexity
Category 1
.317
.275
.038*
Category 2
.319
.348
.315
Category 3
.409
.487
.364
All correlations significant at p<0,01; *non-significant
Addressing research aim (3)

19. Discussion
The practice of commercial video games correlates with ESL skills in terms of time spent, enjoyment, and difficulty in general.
Different game categories correlate distinctly with ESL acquisition (more markedly between categories 2 and 3).
Human interaction within the game determines an increased perception of ESL skill gain

20. Discussion
Category 1 (fast-paced FPS and sports) does not correlate with ESL skill acquisition in terms of perceived complexity. Why?
When there is little time to assimilate what language content the game presents, or when said content is not crucial to game progression, varying the challenge level of the game does not represent gains into language learning.
The level of concentration a fast-paced video game usually requires is proportional to its difficulty. Thus, a greater level of difficulty could hinder cognitive resources given to language acquisition.

21. 3 main practical implications
Linking game progression with tighter scripting in fast-paced games could guarantee that players read through and listen to the text presented in-game thoroughly.
Increasing the frequency of text and audio content presentation in online RPGs (and augmenting the complexity of content presented) could spur players to use game-acquired language more strictly.
Considering that offline RPGs are highly story-driven, games could be further designed drawing from contemporary common usage of the language, to maximize the transferability of lexicon and language usage players acquire through play.

22. Implications
Findings can be used to assist game design making educational and non educational games which balance language learning input and entertainment value.
Integrating video games with an educational value in parallel to classroom-based methodology: adapting the ideal to the now.

23. Discussion: further research
Further research is required to observe in greater detail how different levels of measureable variables correlate with different impact levels on ESL skills (e.g. How much time spent playing an RPG is ideal for ESL skill acquisition?).
Contemplating background variables (age, gender, nationality, education) for the correlations could provide additional insights on the study.

24. Discussion: further research
Additional research on educational video games in light of the analysis in the present study could show a contrast between players´ perceptions of video game practice depending on the game´s purpose and scope (validity)
Further research by analyzing interviews of players who have played all three categories could widen the understanding on nature and intensity of the influence of games on ESL skills. In parallel, language quality/formality differences could be studied (e.g. code-switching, abbreviations, alternate grammars, etc.)

25. Discussion: further research
Further research would provide insights on the depth, pertinence and transferability of ESL knowledge acquired via the domain-specific contexts introduced by some video games.

26. Some limitations
Game categorization based mainly on widespread acclaim and popularity. Other categories (or category-blended games) were excluded from the present analysis, which could have attracted more participants and a greater view on commercial games and language (validity).
Several participants reported benefits and obstacles of ESL acquisition through game categories such as Real Time Strategy (e.g. Starcraft, Age of Empires) and Life Simulation (e.g. The Sims, Second Life).

27. Current standing
After approval by supervisor, the article was submitted to the journal Computers and Education earlier in the year.
Essi has been a demanding but enlightening guide. Quite an endeavor!

28. Study 2: 2013
Toward the establishment of a parallel between video game practice and learning of conceptual physics: the pedagogy of the future.

29. Introduction
This study observed the relationship between a smart video game practice (Portal 2, 2011) and the acquisition of conceptual physics.
Students´ common mistakes were classified and analyzed under the light of types of interaction players presented.

30. Introduction
Stealth assessment: evaluation based on game-provided evidence, included directly and invisibly in the experience of play (Ventura, 2013).
Gating: introducing forceful barriers in play progression that do not allow players to advance until learning objectives have been met (Schiller, 2007).

31. Introduction Difficulties with conceptual physics acquisition:
Inexpert students have intuitive conceptions of physics prior to learning. These conceptions are strongly based, as mechanical physics are perceived day to day. Thus, there is a strong resistance to change.

32. Introduction
2 main conceptions regarding wrong development of causality in physics:
1. Misconceptions (Hammer, 1996): learners have conceptions (cognitively stable structures) prior to tackling physical concepts. They affect understanding. To learn, these must be overcome by replacing or redefining them.
2. P-prims (diSessa, 1993): Previous conceptions are not always stable structures, but activations based on knowledge appropriate for a different context. Overgeneralizations. To learn, these must not be eliminated, but contextually reassigned.

33. Introduction P-prims related to mechanical physics: Ohm´s p-prim
An agent or causal impulse acts through a resistance or interference to produce results. This justifies proportionalities such as, “greater height implies greater acceleration”.
Generalized momentum
All objects continue moving as they have been.
Anthropomorphization of generalized momentum
Objects move in the direction they are facing

34. Methods
Portal 2 for XBOX game levels (tutorial + mechanical physics). Two consoles, four controllers. 35 9th grade students, inexpert at physics. 26 Students divided into couples, 9 other control group. 4 sessions of 25 minutes of play each collaborative couple Audio interactions recorded fully for 50 minutes per couple Pretest-treatment-posttest, quasi-experimental design

35. Methods
2 groups according to chronological development: 1st: Pretest-game-introduction to physics course-posttest 2nd: Pretest-introduction to physics course-game-posttest

36. Methods
Pretest and posttest: 3 conceptual questions, maths-free, situational analysis. Pretest questions = posttest questions
3 topics:
Free fall
Momentum
Parabolic movement

37. Methods Pretest/posttest questions:
Free fall: a bowling ball is dropped from a 3rd floor and a man catches it. A baseball is dropped from a helicopter at a considerable height and a man catches it. Which one will damage the man more? (observed p-prims: a greater mass exercises a greater force-disregards height. A greater size implies higher gravity affectance-over-generalized Newton´s second law).
Momentum: a round stone is tied to one end of a rope, and a person is asked to hold the rope by the other end. The person is asked to spin the rope counterclockwise just over his head. After a while, the person is asked to release the rope just as the stone is passing in front of his face. In what direction will the stone fly? (observed p-prims: the stone will continue its circular motion-generalized momentum. The stone will move away perpendicularly to the person-objects move in the direction they face)
In a basketball court, a player is asked to make a midcourt shot. After he scores, the hoop is exchanged for one with a lesser diameter (just wide enough for the ball to fit through). How must the player modify his shot to ensure he scores?

38. Results
Audio interactions analyzed and coded under 2 main categories: game-related, and non-game-related.
Game-related
Non-game-related
Physical concepts
General unrelated
Procedural control
Emotional expression
Strategic coordination
Curse words
Logistics issues
No interaction

39. Results: pretest-posttest
Shift from pretest to posttest results: Implications?
Game first, class second
Class first, game second
Control

40. Results: pretest-posttest
Physics class averages (percent):
Game first, class second
Class first, game second
Control
Video game practice positive for conceptual physics, but not necessarily for the mathematical dimension of physics.

41. Results: game progression
The farther the players advanced in the 14 levels, the better performance in the posttest. Advancing further requires higher level of understanding, therefore yielding transferable knowledge.

42. Results: interaction
In general, non-related interaction correlates higher with improved results.
It is interaction in general -content notwithstanding- what strengthens comprehension in a context of informal socialization devoid of specific content expressions (in line with Steinkuehler & Williams, 2006).

43. Results: experiment sequence
The group that received physics class before playing had better posttest results.
In general, players which already have basic knowledge of mechanics find the experience of play more constructive for conceptual acquisition.

44. Conclusion
- Smart video game practice is beneficial to acquisition of conceptual physics. - Video game practice should be presented in parallel to traditional classroom-based physics courses. It can reinforce acquisition through visualization. - Future research should analyze interactions in greater detail, to obtain a wider perspective of the relationship between interaction, game progression and learning.

45. References
Chen, H-J.; Yang, T-Y. (2013). The impact of adventure video games on foreign language learning and the perceptions of learners. Interactive Learning Environments. 21(2),
Corredor, J., Gaydos, M. (2014). Language games: How gaming communities shape second-language literacy. In H. Gerber & S. Abrams (Eds) (2014). Bridging literacies with videogames. Amsterdam: Sense Publishers.
Garris, R., Ahlers, R. & Driskell, J.E. (2002). Games, motivation, and learning: A research and practice model. Simulation & Gaming, 33(4),
Gee, J. P. (2003). What Video Games Have to Teach us About Learning and Literacy. New Your, NY: Palgrave Macmillan.
Lombardi, I. (2012). Not-so-serious games for learning. Now with 99.9% more humor on top. Procedia Computer Sciences, 15(2012),
Orvis, K., Horn, D. & Belanich, J. (2007). The roles of task difficulty and prior videogame experience on performance and motivation in instructional videogames. Computers in Human Behavior, 24(5),
Shafer, D. (2014). Investigating suspense as a predictor of enjoyment in sports video games. Journal of Broadcasting & Electronic Media,58(2),
Vorderer, P., Bryant, J., Pieper, K. M., & Weber, R. (2006). Playing video games as entertainment. In P. Vorderer & J. Bryant (Eds). Playing video games: Motives, responses, and consequences (pp. 1–7). Mahwah, NJ: LEA.