1. Elements of a “Story”
When reading a story, look for these techniques and devices an author will use.

2. Plot Sequence of events in a story The writer’s plan
Generally includes characters and includes a conflict (problem) leading to a climax (high point).
Skeleton of the story
This happens, then this, then this…

3. Plot, Characters + Conflict
Climax
Rising Action
Falling Action
Introduction or Exposition
Resolution
There may be a series of mini-crescendos or climaxes, but there generally one major climax. 3

4. Review of P L O T… There are 5 parts of PLOT:
Introduction or Exposition (characters, setting, + situation introduced…this can also be called Exposition because the conflict and character are “exposed” to the reader.)
Rising Action (conflict/tension worsens and events build up
leading to the climax)
Climax (the moment in the story of highest emotion, stress, +
suspense for the character and/or the reader)
Falling Action (tension/conflict slowly falls away leading to the
resolution)
Resolution (the conflict is resolved, loose ends tied-up, and the
theme is stated) 4

5. Characterization
Remember, an authors use CHARACTERIZATION to make their characters seem believable. They do this through the use of the thoughts + actions of characters.
There are TWO types of characters:
1. PROTAGONIST: The main character in a story. “The good guy.”
2. ANTAGONIST: character who works against the main character (or protagonist). “The bad guy.” 5

6. Examples of Antagonist vs. Protagonist
VERSUS
Protagonist: Harry Potter Antagonist: Voldemort 6

7. More Examples… VERSUS Protagonist: Lucy /Aslan Antagonist: White Witch7

8. More Examples…
VERSUS
Protagonist: Snow White Antagonist: Evil Queen 8

9. Character Main Character: The one who gets the most focus.
The “star” or “stars” of the story.
The plot generally revolves around this character.

10. Character-Continued Minor or Sub-Characters:
These are less developed characters that often provide comic relief or represent evil, but the plot does not revolve around this character.

11. Characterization
Direct Characterization: When an authors tells you about a character directly (i.e. Mr. Morrison was a giant of a man. He was 6’8” tall, had size 14 feet, and barely fit through the doorway.”).
Indirect Characterization: When an author tells you about a character through the character’s actions, thoughts, or the way other characters react to him/her (Mr. Morrison said, “Thank you Mrs. Johnson…I ain’t had no family and feel right good about bein’ a part of yours.”)

12. Conflict
A problem or struggle between two or more opposing forces often in a narrative.
Can be major or minor depending on the plot and sub-plot of the story.

13. C O N F L I C T
There MUST be conflict in a story for the story to even be considered a story or narrative. We keep reading to see if the problem will eventually be resolved.
The CONFLICT can be something as a minor as a zit, to as large as a war. 13

14. 4 Types of Conflict…
1. Character vs. Character (Man v Man): the problem the protagonist faces is one involving another character. 
Luke Skywalker vs. Darth Vader 14

15. 4 Types of Conflict…
2. Character vs. Society (man v society): the protagonist faces a problem involving something in the society in which they live (example: racism) 
To Kill a Mockingbird
Tom Robinson is accused of a crime he didn’t commit. 15

16. 4 Types of Conflict…
3. Character vs. Self (man v self): the character has some internal struggle inside themselves 16

17. 4 Types of Conflict…
Character vs. Nature (man v nature): the protagonist struggles with some natural force (tornado, harsh climate, etc.) 17

18. Point of View The perspective from which the story is told.
Narrator (comments on the story…often provides characterization and plot movement…may or may not be involved in the story)
First Person (the author or narrator are involved in the story)…”I went to the store.”
Second Person (the author is writing to the reader)…”You love green eggs and ham.”

19. Point of View-Continued
Third Person (the author tells the story without being involved in the story and without using “I” or “You.” The narrative voice is outside the action, not one of the characters.

20. Point of View-Continued
Omniscient=The author allows the reader to be all knowing regarding characters and their emotions without relying on dialogue…”George felt remorse for stealing the apple.”
Limited=The narrator tells what only one character thinks, feels, and observes.

21. Setting
Time and place a story takes place; the surroundings or the environment where the action of the story happens.
The setting can contribute to the tone of a story as in the case of frightening story where the setting is an abandoned house or a cemetery at night in stormy weather.

22. Setting
Time: Present, past, future, day, night, etc.

23. Setting
Place: small town, country, city, outer space, etc.

24. Theme
The main message the writer wants to pass to the reader (Authorial intent)
Moral of the story…
Usually a hidden message
Look at how the main character changed.
Think of the story’s title – does it have a special meaning?

25. Irony Contrast between what is expected and what happens.
Losing the big game, the coach said with heavy irony, “It was certainly an educational experience.”
“What a beautiful view,” the man said with an ironic tone as he looked out the apartment to see only the wall of the next building.

26. Irony
Verbal irony occurs when a speaker’s intention is the opposite of what he or she is saying. For example, a character might exit a hurricane and say, “Lovely weather we’re having today.”
Two kinds of Verbal Irony:
Overstatement – when a person exaggerates the character of something. We have enough homework for a month in one week. Understatement – when a person undermines the character of something. We could sure use more homework; we don’t have enough.

27. Irony
Situational irony occurs when the actual result of a situation is totally different from what you’d expect the result to be. Sitcoms often use situational irony. For example, a family spends a lot of time and money planning an elaborate surprise birthday party for their mother to show her how much they care. But it turns out, her birthday is next month, and none of them knew the correct date. She ends up fuming that no one cares enough to remember her birthday. Another typical situational irony is when the typical character traits are reversed such as a cat chasing a dog or a baby teaching about stock investments.

28. Irony
Dramatic irony occurs when the audience knows a key piece of information that a character in a play, movie or novel does not. This is the type of irony that makes us yell, “DON’T GO IN THERE!!” during a scary movie. Another example from “Star Wars” is where Luke doesn’t know that Darth Vader is his father but the audience knows. Another example from Romeo and Juliet is where Romeo thinks Juliet is dead but the audience knows that she isn’t.

29. Allusion Reference to a famous person, place,
event, or work of literature
“He has Herculean strength.”
“I was surprised his nose wasn’t growing like Pinnochio’s.”
“Chocolate was her Achilles’ heel.”
“He was a real Romeo with the ladies.”

30. Simile Comparison of two unlike things USING LIKE OR AS
“The steak was as tough AS an old shoe.”
“He was LIKE a bull.”
“The snow felt LIKE a soft blanket welcoming us to our death.”

31. Metaphor
A comparison of two unlike things WITHOUT using “like” or “as”
“Her love is a rose.”
“He is a mountain of a man.”
“Our anger was a mountain to be climbed step by step.”

32. Personification A description of something as human that is not human.
“Sir, I encountered Death just now among our roses.”
“The wind howled as if it were angry.”
“My heart screamed within my chest.”

33. Assonance
Repetition of VOWEL sounds within a sentence or line of a poem.
Adam always assisted all.
Edward’s education made him an excellent student.

34. Alliteration
Repetition of a CONSONANT sound within a sentence or a line of poetry.
“One by one the casements catch
Her beams beneath the silvery thatch.”
-- “Nora never noticed nothin’.”
-- “She sells sea shells down by the sea shore.”
-- “Peter Piper picked a peck of pickled peppers.”

35. Suspense
A feeling of growing tension and excitement felt by the reader.
“She walked deeper and deeper into the dark forest.”

36. Mood What feeling a work gives to a reader – fun, spooky, etc.
Similar to tone.

37. Tone Expresses the writer’s attitude toward the subject
can be “angry”, “sad”, “frightening,” or “humorous,” for instance.
Mark Twain often writes in a “tongue in cheek” humor which causes the reader to feel like he is in on a joke with the writer.