1. CHAPTER 9 BODY ORGANIZATION

2. Chapter 9 Learning Objectives
Identify the meaning of 10 or more terms relating to the organization of the body.
Describe the properties of life.
Label the structures of the cell, and describe the function of each.

3. Chapter 9 Learning Objectives
Describe the organization of the body from the smallest unit to the largest.
Describe organs of the body in relation to the plane, region, or cavity of location.
Describe five or more disorders resulting from variations or defects in cellular organization.

4. Anatomy and Physiology
Four basic properties of life
Reception
Ability of the organism to control its actions and respond to changes in the environment
Metabolism
Process of taking in and using nutrients to produce energy and growth
Reproduction
Ability to reproduce offspring to continue the species
Organization
Division of the organism into distinct parts to perform these functions
Discuss the four basic properties of life.

5. Anatomy Organization of body structures on five levels:
Cells: smallest units of life
Tissues: combinations of similar cells
Organs: collections of tissues working together to perform a function
Body system: organs that work together to provide a major body function
Organism: being that results when the body systems work together to maintain life
Discuss each of the five levels of body structure organization, and have the students give examples of each level.

6. Cell Structure Major structures of a cell are called organelles
Nucleus
Controls activity of the cell
Directs reproduction
Cytoplasm
Semifluid material that surrounds cell parts
Transports chemicals and nutrients within the cell
Mitochondria
Produce the energy used for cellular processes
While discussing the major structures of a cell, refer to Slide 8 or to Figure 9-1 in the students’ textbooks.

7. Cell Structure Cell membrane Lysosomes Ribosomes Golgi apparatus
Surrounds the cell
Controls which substances enter and leave the cell
Lysosomes
Help to break down, or digest, molecules
Ribosomes
Attached to the endoplasmic reticulum
Work to produce protein for the cell structures
Golgi apparatus
Makes glycoproteins, which help transport proteins made by the ribosomes out of the cell
While discussing the major structures of a cell, refer to Slide 8 or to Figure 9-1 in the students’ textbooks.

8. Structures of the Cell
FIGURE 9-1 The structures of the cell. (From Patton KT, Thibodeau GA: Anatomy & physiology, ed 7, St. Louis, 2010, Mosby.)

9. Homeostasis
Tendency of a cell or the whole organism to maintain a state of balance
Refers to maintaining constancy of the internal milieu or fluid surrounding cells of the organism
Composition of the tissue fluid that makes up internal environment is kept constant.
Molecules pass in and out of the cell to maintain balance.
Homeo means “the same.” Stasis means “staying.” Homeostasis is “the state of balance” of trying to keep the body staying the same.
All body systems interact to create homeostasis in the body.

10. Homeostasis Physiologic components of homeostasis or state of balance
Body temperature
Gas exchange
pH values
Water and ion balance
Volume and pressure of fluid
Waste removal
Nutrient intake

11. Homeostasis and Body Systems
Discuss the mechanisms of homeostasis in each of the body systems.

12. Electrolytes
Electrolytes are compounds made of charged particles called ions
Ions can conduct electrical current in water or in the cytoplasm of a cell
Positive charge (cation) creates an acid
Negative charge (anion) creates a base
Different electrolytes have special functions.
While discussing electrolytes, refer to Slide 13 or Figure 9-2 in the students’ textbooks.

13. Electrolytes of the Body

14. pH
The pH of a fluid is a measurement of how much acid or base is present.
Each tissue has a normal pH value.
Cells do not function properly if the normal pH is not maintained for that area of the body.
Refer to Slide 15 or to Figure 9-2 in the students’ textbooks while discussing pH .

15. pH
FIGURE 9-2 The body’s pH. The body must maintain normal pH levels to function properly.

16. Tissue Types Four main tissue types Epithelial tissue
Covers the body, forms glands, and lines the surfaces of cavities and organs
Connective tissue
Formed by a protein
Includes soft tissues, such as fat and blood cells, and hard tissues, such as bones, ligaments, and cartilage
Ask the students to identify examples of each tissue type.

17. Tissue Types Muscle tissue Nervous tissue Made of protein fibers
Has the unique property of shortening to produce movement
Nervous tissue
Composed largely of specialized cells called neurons

18. Body Systems A body system is a group of related organs.
Body systems together accomplish functions necessary to maintain and support life.
There are 12 body systems.
Stress the importance of understanding that all body systems work together to maintain homeostasis.

19. Body Systems Integumentary system Cardiovascular system
Covers the body
Protects other body systems
Cardiovascular system
Transports oxygen and nutrients to all body parts
Removes waste products
Identify and briefly discuss the organs in integumentary and cardiovascular systems. These systems are discussed in more detail in Chapters 10 and 11.

20. Body Systems Circulatory system Respiratory system Skeletal system
Includes the blood and lymph that move throughout the body
Respiratory system
Exchanges gases between the air and blood
Skeletal system
Provides body support and protection
Identify and briefly discuss the organs in the circulatory, respiratory, and skeletal systems. These systems are discussed in more detail in Chapters 12, 13, and 14.

21. Body Systems Muscular system Digestive system Allows the body to move
Controls movements within the body
Digestive system
Processes food
Eliminates food waste
Identify and briefly discuss the organs in the muscular and digestive systems. These systems are discussed in more detail in Chapters 15 and 16.

22. Body Systems Urinary system Endocrine system Nervous system
Filters the blood
Removes liquid wastes
Endocrine system
Coordinates body functions through hormones
Nervous system
Regulates the environment
Directs the activities of other body systems
Identify and briefly discuss the organs in the urinary, endocrine, and nervous systems. These systems are discussed in more detail in Chapters 17, 18, and 19.

23. Body Systems Sensory system Reproductive system
Perceives the environment
Sends messages to and from the brain
Reproductive system
Provides for human reproduction
Identify and briefly discuss the organs in the sensory and reproductive systems. These systems are discussed in more detail in Chapters 20 and 21.

24. Anatomic Position
Anatomic position is the standard position of the body used to describe the location of the anatomy.
A person assumes an erect standing position with
Mouth closed
Eyes and head facing forward
Feet slightly apart and toes facing forward
Arms close to the body, with palms facing forward and fingers extended
Have the students practice standing in the correct anatomic position.

25. Anatomic Position
FIGURE 9-4 Anatomic position. (From Sorrentino S: Mosby’s text for nursing assistants, ed 7. St Louis, 2008, Mosby.)

26. Body Planes Three planes are used to describe the body.
Coronal or frontal
Separates the front and back of the body
Transverse
Divides the upper and lower body
Sagittal
Divides the body into right and left sides
Ask the students to identify the parts of the body in the frontal plane.
Ask the students to identify the parts of the body in the sagittal plane.
Ask the students to identify the parts of the body in the transverse plane.

27. Body Planes
Location of organs is described in relation to these planes:
Inferior (below)
Superior (above)
Medial (close to)
Lateral (away from)
Anterior or ventral (in front of)
Posterior or dorsal (behind)
Other terms used to indicate where one organ attaches to another:
Proximal (close to)
Distal (away from)
Discuss body planes, making sure students understand the terms inferior, superior, medial, lateral, anterior/ventral, and posterior/dorsal.
Ask the students to identify (using proximal and distal terminology where applicable) the following:
What organs are located in the inferior plane?
What organs are located in the superior plane?
What organs are located in the medial plane?
What organs are located in the lateral plane?
What organs are located in the anterior/ventral plane?
What organs are located in the posterior/dorsal plane?

28. Body Planes
FIGURE 9-5 Body planes. A, Coronal. B, Transverse. C, Sagittal.

29. Body Cavities Five body cavities Thoracic Abdominal Pelvic Cranial
Contains lungs, heart, esophagus, trachea, and major blood vessels
Abdominal
Contains stomach, gallbladder, pancreas, intestines, liver, spleen, adrenal glands, and kidneys
Pelvic
Contains reproductive organs, bladder, and rectum
Cranial
Contains the brain, ventricles, and some glands
Spinal
Houses the spinal cord and nerves
Discuss each of the five body cavities and what each contains. While discussing, refer to Slide 30 or Figure 9-6 in the textbook.

30. Body Cavities
FIGURE 9-6 Cavities of the body.

31. Body Regions
Abdominal and pelvic cavities are described in terms of nine regions:
Right hypochondriac
Epigastric
Left hypochondriac
Right lumbar
Umbilical
Left lumbar
Right inguinal
Hypogastric
Left inguinal
While discussing each of the body regions, refer to Slide 32 or Figure 9-7 in the students’ textbook.

32. Body Regions
FIGURE 9-7 Body regions. 1, Right hypochondriac. 2, Epigastric. 3, Left hypochondriac. 4, Right lumbar. 5, Umbilical. 6, Left lumbar. 7, Right inguinal. 8, Hypogastric. 9, Left inguinal. (From Patton KT, Thibodeau GA: Anatomy & physiology, ed 7, St Louis, 2010, Mosby.)

33. Abdominal Quadrants Four quadrants Right upper Right lower Left upper
Left lower
While discussing the four abdominal quadrants, refer to Slide 34 or Figure 9-8 in the students’ textbook.

34. Abdominal Quadrants
FIGURE 9-8 Division of the abdomen into four quadrants. Diagram shows relationship of internal organs to the four abdominopelvic quadrants: 1, right upper quadrant (RUQ); 2, left upper quadrant (LUQ); 3, right lower quadrant (RLQ); 4, left lower quadrant (LLQ). (From Patton KT, Thibodeau GA: Anatomy & physiology, ed 7, St Louis, 2010, Mosby.)

35. Cell Function
Mitosis is the process by which a cell divides to reproduce, creating an identical replica with the same chromosomes.
Each cell (except gametes) contains 46 chromosomes.
All chromosomes (except sex chromosomes X and Y) are paired and called homologous autosomes.

36. Cell Function
Meiosis
Cell divides into two parts, with each containing only one half of the chromosomes
Part of the reproduction process
Results in the formation of sex cells (gametes)
Fertilization is the combination of two gametes with chromosomes from different parents to form one cell.
Offspring inherits any abnormal gene found on the chromosome of either parent.

37. Cell Function Heredity
Heredity is genetic transmission of particular characteristics (traits) from parent to offspring.
Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) is the biologic molecule that contains instructions for producing these characteristics.
In the cell, strands of DNA are packaged into chromosomes, which contain segments called genes.

38. Cell Function Chromosomes Genotype Made of threadlike strands of DNA
Contain 30,000 to 40,000 genes
Genotype
Genetic information configured in chromosomes
Recessive genes
Dominant genes
Heterozygous pattern
Two genes that are different on the chromosome pair
Homozygous pattern
Two genes that are alike on the chromosome pair

39. Cell Function Phenotype
Trait or appearance that results from the genotype
Genetic information carried on all chromosomes is responsible for
Development of all body cells
Formation of tissues, organs, and body systems

40. Karyotype
FIGURE 9-10 The karyotype is an organized picture of the chromosomes. (Courtesy Ward’s Natural Science Establishment, Rochester, N.Y.)

41. Cell Formation Diseases
Abnormal genes or chromosomes cause many genetic disorders, which may be
Hereditary (inherited)
Sporadic (acquired)
Abnormalities may result when there is a mutation of one or more genes.

42. Cell Formation Diseases
More than 4000 genetic disorders identified
Most disorders are caused by more than one gene variation and environmental effect.
Mulitifactorial genetic disorder (MFGD)
Not everyone with a gene variant develops the disorder.

43. Causes of Genetic Disorders

44. Mapped Genetic Disorders

45. Cell Formation Diseases
Cancer
Uncontrolled growth of abnormal cells that tend to spread (metastasize) and invade the tissues around them
Classified in five groups
Carcinomas
Leukemia
Sarcomas
Lymphomas
Adenomas

46. Five Groups of Cancer Carcinomas Leukemia Sarcomas
Mutated cells that cover internal or external parts of the body
Leukemia
Found in the blood and starts in bone marrow
Sarcomas
Found in connective tissue such as bones, muscle, fat, and cartilage

47. Five Groups of Cancer Lymphomas Adenomas
Start in the lymph nodes and immune system tissues
Adenomas
Affect thyroid, pituitary, adrenal, and other glandular tissues

48. Cancer Common sites for development of cancer Lungs Breast Colon
Uterus
Oral cavity
Bone marrow

49. Warning Signs of Cancer

50. Cancer
Cancer results from a mistake or mutation in a single cell’s division.
Cell division is uncontrolled.
More than 80% of cancer cases are related to smoking or exposure to chemicals, radiation, and ultraviolet light (e.g., sun, tanning beds).
Some types are related to viral infections.

51. Factors Associated with Cancer

52. Inherited Cancers

53. Issues and Innovations
Genetic engineering
Genetic abnormalities cause 4000 disorders.
Advanced techniques and procedures can identify abnormal genes in the unborn fetus.
Chorionic villus sampling
Preimplantation diagnosis
Gene splicing

54. Issues and Innovations
Cancer treatments
Immunotherapy
Chemicals isolated from bacteria infected with the cancer
Killed suspensions of bacteria
Biologic substances that harm tumors
Interferon
Interleukin
Tumor necrosis factors
Growth factors
Discuss each of the types of cancer treatments. Refer to Slide 55 or Box 9-4 in the students’ textbooks.

55. Types of Cancer Treatments
Discuss each of the types of cancer treatments. Refer to Slide 55 or Box 9-4 in the students’ textbooks.

56. Issues and Innovations
Cancer treatments
Lasers
Destroy cancerous cells
Photodynamic therapy (fiberoptic technology)
Hyperthermia (increase in temperature)
Used in combination with radiation therapy to treat some tumors

57. Summary Properties of life Structures of the cell Reception Metabolism
Reproduction
Organization
Structures of the cell
Nucleus
Cytoplasm
Cell membrane

58. Summary Organization of the body
Cells combine to make tissues.
Tissues combine to make organs.
Organs combine to make a body system.
Combined body systems make an organism.
The brain is located superior to the heart, which is anterior to the spinal cord.

59. Summary Disorders resulting from defects in cell organization
Cleft lip
Clubfoot
Cystic fibrosis
Down syndrome
Huntington’s disease