1. National Accounting, GDP, Growth10
National Accounting, GDP, Growth

2. General Information
24.10.
Introduction; Transformation Curve, Opportunity Cost
Mankiw ch.1,2
31.10.
Markets: Demand and Supply
Ch. 4
7.11.
Elasticities
Ch. 5
14.11.
Costs, Production Function
Ch. 13
21.11.
Markets with perfect competiton
Ch. 7, 14
28.11.
Taxation
Ch. 8
5.12.
International Trade
Ch. 9
12.12.
Imperfect competition: Monopoly, and Oligoploy
Ch. 15, 16
19.12.
Public Goods, Externalities
Ch. 10,11
9.1.
National Accounting, Gross Domestic Product, Growth
Ch. 23, 25
16.1.
Money and Inflation
Ch. 24, 29, 30
23.1.
Business Cycles
Ch. 33, 34
30.1.
Open Economy Macro
Ch. 31

3. Economics Microeconomics Macroeconomics
Microeconomics is the study of how individual households and firms make decisions and how they interact with one another in markets.
Macroeconomics
Macroeconomics is the study of the economy as a whole.
Its goal is to explain the economic changes that affect many households, firms, and markets at once.

4. Macroeconomics Macroeconomics answers questions like the following:
Why is average income high in some countries and low in others?
Why do prices rise rapidly in some time periods while they are more stable in others?
Why do production and employment expand in some years and contract in others?

5. THE ECONOMY’S INCOME AND EXPENDITURE
When judging whether the economy is doing well or poorly, it is natural to look at the total income that everyone in the economy is earning.

6. THE ECONOMY’S INCOME AND EXPENDITURE
For an economy as a whole, income must equal expenditure because:
Every transaction has a buyer and a seller.
Every dollar of spending by some buyer is a dollar of income for some seller.

7. THE MEASUREMENT OF GROSS DOMESTIC PRODUCT
Gross domestic product (GDP) is a measure of the income and expenditures of an economy.
It is the total market value of all final goods and services produced within a country in a given period of time.

8. THE MEASUREMENT OF GROSS DOMESTIC PRODUCT
The equality of income and expenditure can be illustrated with the circular-flow diagram.

9. Figure 1 The Circular-Flow Diagram
Firms sell
Households buy
MARKETS
FOR
GOODS AND SERVICES
Revenue
Spending
Goods
and services
sold
Goods and
services
bought
FIRMS
Produce and sell
goods and services
Hire and use factors
of production
Buy and consume
goods and services
Own and sell factors
of production
HOUSEHOLDS
Households sell
Firms buy
MARKETS
FOR
FACTORS OF PRODUCTION
Factors of
production
Labor, land,
and capital
Wages, rent,
and profit
Income
= Flow of inputs
and outputs
= Flow of dollars

10. THE MEASUREMENT OF GROSS DOMESTIC PRODUCT
GDP is the market value of all final goods and services produced within a country in a given period of time.

11. THE MEASUREMENT OF GROSS DOMESTIC PRODUCT
“GDP is the Market Value . . .”
Output is valued at market prices.
“. . . Of All Final . . .”
It records only the value of final goods, not intermediate goods (the value is counted only once).
“. . . Goods and Services “
It includes both tangible goods (food, clothing, cars) and intangible services (haircuts, housecleaning, doctor visits).

12. THE MEASUREMENT OF GROSS DOMESTIC PRODUCT
“. . . Produced . . .”
It includes goods and services currently produced, not transactions involving goods produced in the past.
“ Within a Country . . .”
It measures the value of production within the geographic confines of a country.

13. THE MEASUREMENT OF GROSS DOMESTIC PRODUCT
“. . . In a Given Period of Time.”
It measures the value of production that takes place within a specific interval of time, usually a year or a quarter (three months).

14. THE COMPONENTS OF GDP What Is Not Counted in GDP?
GDP excludes most items that are produced and consumed at home and that never enter the marketplace.
It excludes items produced and sold illicitly, such as illegal drugs.

15. THE COMPONENTS OF GDP GDP (Y) is the sum of the following:
Consumption (C)
Investment (I)
Government Purchases (G)
Net Exports (NX)
Y = C + I + G + NX

16. THE COMPONENTS OF GDP Consumption (C): Investment (I):
The spending by households on goods and services, with the exception of purchases of new housing.
Investment (I):
The spending on capital equipment, inventories, and structures, including new housing.

17. THE COMPONENTS OF GDP Government Purchases (G): Net Exports (NX):
The spending on goods and services by local, state, and federal governments.
Does not include transfer payments because they are not made in exchange for currently produced goods or services.
Net Exports (NX):
Exports minus imports.

18. Table 1 GDP and Its Components (USA, 2001)
Copyright©2004 South-Western

19. GDP and Its Components (USA, 2001)
Government Purchases
18%
Net Exports
-3 %
Investment
16%
Consumption
69%

20. GDP and Its Components (CH, 2006)
Estimated GDP in 2006 (in prices of 2005):
456 billion CHF

21. Total Demand and Its Components (CH, 2006)

22. REAL VERSUS NOMINAL GDP
Nominal GDP values the production of goods and services at current prices.
Real GDP values the production of goods and services at constant prices.

23. REAL VERSUS NOMINAL GDP
An accurate view of the economy requires adjusting nominal to real GDP by using the GDP deflator.

24. Table 2 Real and Nominal GDP
Copyright©2004 South-Western

25. Table 2 Real and Nominal GDP
Copyright©2004 South-Western

26. Table 2 Real and Nominal GDP
Copyright©2004 South-Western

27. The GDP Deflator
The GDP deflator is a measure of the price level calculated as the ratio of nominal GDP to real GDP times 100.
It tells us the rise in nominal GDP that is attributable to a rise in prices rather than a rise in the quantities produced.

28. The GDP Deflator
The GDP deflator is calculated as follows:

29. Table 2 Real and Nominal GDP
Copyright©2004 South-Western

30. Chain-weighted Real GDP
Over time, relative prices change, so the base year should be updated periodically.
In essence, “chain-weighted Real GDP” updates the base year every year.
This makes chain-weighted GDP more accurate than constant-price GDP.
But the two measures are highly correlated, and constant-price real GDP is easier to compute…
…so we’ll usually use constant-price real GDP.

31. Figure 2 GDP in Switzerland

32. GDP in Switzerland: Some slowdown expected for 2007
Billions CHF (quarter)
Q-to-Q in % -2 -1 1 2 3 4
BFS: SNA 09/2006, Quartalization by seco
KOF-Forecast 10/2006
120
118
116
114
112
2.6%
2.1%
1.5%
110
108
2003
2004
2005
2006
2007
2008

33. GDP AND ECONOMIC WELL-BEING
GDP is the best single measure of the economic well-being of a society.
GDP per person tells us the income and expenditure of the average person in the economy.

34. GDP AND ECONOMIC WELL-BEING
Higher GDP per person indicates a higher standard of living.
GDP is not a perfect measure of the happiness or quality of life, however.

35. GDP AND ECONOMIC WELL-BEING
Some things that contribute to well-being are not included in GDP.
The value of leisure.
The value of a clean environment.
The value of almost all activity that takes place outside of markets, such as the value of the time parents spend with their children and the value of volunteer work.

36. Table 3 GDP, Life Expectancy, and Literacy
Copyright©2004 South-Western

37. Production and Growth
A country’s standard of living depends on its ability to produce goods and services.
Within a country there are large changes in the standard of living over time.

38. Production and Growth
Productivity refers to the amount of goods and services produced for each hour of a worker’s time.
A nation’s standard of living is determined by the productivity of its workers.
Living standards, as measured by real GDP per person, vary significantly among nations.

39. Table 1 The Variety of Growth Experiences
Copyright©2004 South-Western

40. ECONOMIC GROWTH AROUND THE WORLD
Annual growth rates that seem small become large when compounded for many years.
Compounding refers to the accumulation of a growth rate over a period of time.

41. Huge effects from tiny differences
percentage increase in standard of living after…
annual growth rate of income per capita
…25 years
…50 years
…100 years
2.0%
64.0%
169.2%
624.5%
2.5%
85.4%
243.7%
1,081.4%

42. Huge effects from tiny differences
If the annual growth rate of German real GDP per capita had been just one-tenth of one percent higher during the 1990s,
Germany would have generated an additional € 112 billion of income during that decade

43. Why Productivity Is So Important
To understand the large differences in living standards across countries, we must focus on the production of goods and services.
Productivity refers to the amount of goods and services that a worker can produce from each hour of work.

44. How Productivity Is Determined
The inputs used to produce goods and services are called the factors of production.
The factors of production directly determine productivity.

45. How Productivity Is Determined
The Factors of Production
Physical capital
Human capital
Natural resources
Technological knowledge

46. How Productivity Is Determined
Physical Capital
is a produced factor of production.
It is an input into the production process that in the past was an output from the production process.
is the stock of equipment and structures that are used to produce goods and services.
Tools used to build or repair automobiles.
Tools used to build furniture.
Office buildings, schools, etc.

47. How Productivity Is Determined
Human Capital
the economist’s term for the knowledge and skills that workers acquire through education, training, and experience
Like physical capital, human capital raises a nation’s ability to produce goods and services.

48. How Productivity Is Determined
Natural Resources
inputs used in production that are provided by nature, such as land, rivers, and mineral deposits.
Renewable resources include trees and forests.
Nonrenewable resources include petroleum and coal.
can be important but are not necessary for an economy to be highly productive in producing goods and services.

49. How Productivity Is Determined
Technological Knowledge
society’s understanding of the best ways to produce goods and services.
Human capital refers to the resources expended transmitting this understanding to the labor force.

50. The Production Function
Economists often use a production function to describe the relationship between the quantity of inputs used in production and the quantity of output from production.

51. The Production Function
Y = A F(L, K, H, N)
Y = quantity of output
A = available production technology
L = quantity of labor
K = quantity of physical capital
H = quantity of human capital
N = quantity of natural resources
F( ) is a function that shows how the inputs are combined.

52. The Production Function
A production function has constant returns to scale if, for any positive number x,
xY = A F(xL, xK, xH, xN)
That is, a doubling of all inputs causes the amount of output to double as well.

53. The Production Function
Production functions with constant returns to scale have an interesting implication.
Setting x = 1/L,
Y/ L = A F(1, K/ L, H/ L, N/ L)
Where:
Y/L = output per worker
K/L = physical capital per worker
H/L = human capital per worker
N/L = natural resources per worker

54. The Production Function
The preceding equation says that productivity (Y/L) depends on physical capital per worker (K/L), human capital per worker (H/L), and natural resources per worker (N/L), as well as the state of technology, (A).

55. ECONOMIC GROWTH AND PUBLIC POLICY
Government Policies That Raise Productivity and Living Standards
Encourage saving and investment.
Encourage investment from abroad
Encourage education and training.
Establish secure property rights and maintain political stability.
Promote free trade.
Promote research and development.

56. The Importance of Saving and Investment
One way to raise future productivity is to invest more current resources in the production of capital.

57. Figure 1 Growth and Investment( a ) G r o w t h R a t e 1 9 6 –
1991 ( b ) I n v e s t m e n t 1 9 6 –
1991
South Korea
South Korea
Singapore
Singapore
Japan
Japan
Israel
Israel
Canada
Canada
Brazil
Brazil
West Germany
West Germany
Mexico
Mexico
United Kingdom
United Kingdom
Nigeria
Nigeria
United States
United States
India
India
Bangladesh
Bangladesh
Chile
Chile
Rwanda
Rwanda 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 10 20 30 40
Growth Rate (percent)
Investment (percent of GDP)
Copyright©2003 Southwestern/Thomson Learning

58. International Evidence on Investment Rates and Income per Person

59. Diminishing Returns and the Catch-Up Effect
As the stock of capital rises, the extra output produced from an additional unit of capital falls; this property is called diminishing returns.
Because of diminishing returns, an increase in the saving rate leads to higher growth only for a while.

60. Diminishing Returns and the Catch-Up Effect
In the long run, the higher saving rate leads to a higher level of productivity and income, but not to higher growth in these areas.

61. Diminishing Returns and the Catch-Up Effect
The catch-up effect refers to the property whereby countries that start off poor tend to grow more rapidly than countries that start off rich.

62. Conditional convergence: 21 OECD countries

63. Investment from Abroad
Governments can increase capital accumulation and long-term economic growth by encouraging investment from foreign sources.

64. Investment from Abroad
Investment from abroad takes several forms:
Foreign Direct Investment
Capital investment owned and operated by a foreign entity.
Foreign Portfolio Investment
Investments financed with foreign money but operated by domestic residents.

65. Education
For a country’s long-run growth, education is at least as important as investment in physical capital.
In the United States, each year of schooling raises a person’s wage, on average, by about 10 percent.
Thus, one way the government can enhance the standard of living is to provide schools and encourage the population to take advantage of them.

66. Education
An educated person might generate new ideas about how best to produce goods and services, which in turn, might enter society’s pool of knowledge and provide an external benefit to others.

67. Education
One problem facing some poor countries is the brain drain—the emigration of many of the most highly educated workers to rich countries.

68. Property Rights and Political Stability
Property rights refer to the ability of people to exercise authority over the resources they own.
An economy-wide respect for property rights is an important prerequisite for the price system to work.
It is necessary for investors to feel that their investments are secure.

69. Free Trade
Trade is, in some ways, a type of technology.
A country that eliminates trade restrictions will experience the same kind of economic growth that would occur after a major technological advance.

70. Some countries engage in . . .
Free Trade
Some countries engage in . . .
. . . inward-orientated trade policies, avoiding interaction with other countries.
. . . outward-orientated trade policies, encouraging interaction with other countries.

71. Research and Development
The advance of technological knowledge has led to higher standards of living.
Most technological advance comes from private research by firms and individual inventors.
Government can encourage the development of new technologies through research grants, tax breaks, and the patent system.

72. Population Growth
Economists and other social scientists have long debated how population growth affects a society

73. Population growth interacts with other factors of production:
Stretching natural resources
Diluting the capital stock
Promoting technological progress

74. International Evidence on Population Growth and Income per Person

75. Summary
Because every transaction has a buyer and a seller, the total expenditure in the economy must equal the total income in the economy.
Gross Domestic Product (GDP) measures an economy’s total expenditure on newly produced goods and services and the total income earned from the production of these goods and services.

76. Summary
GDP is the market value of all final goods and services produced within a country in a given period of time.
GDP is divided among four components of expenditure: consumption, investment, government purchases, and net exports.

77. Summary
Nominal GDP uses current prices to value the economy’s production. Real GDP uses constant base-year prices to value the economy’s production of goods and services.
The GDP deflator—calculated from the ratio of nominal to real GDP—measures the level of prices in the economy.

78. Summary
GDP is a good measure of economic well-being because people prefer higher to lower incomes.
It is not a perfect measure of well-being because some things, such as leisure time and a clean environment, aren’t measured by GDP.

79. Summary
Economic prosperity, as measured by real GDP per person, varies substantially around the world.
The average income of the world’s richest countries is more than ten times that in the world’s poorest countries.
The standard of living in an economy depends on the economy’s ability to produce goods and services.

80. Summary
Productivity depends on the amounts of physical capital, human capital, natural resources, and technological knowledge available to workers.
Government policies can influence the economy’s growth rate in many different ways.

81. Summary The accumulation of capital is subject to diminishing returns.
Because of diminishing returns, higher saving leads to a higher growth for a period of time, but growth will eventually slow down.
Also because of diminishing returns, the return to capital is especially high in poor countries.