1. Chapter 8: Trait Aspects of Personality

2. Trait and Skill Approach
Analogy
Humans are clusters of temperaments, traits, and skills

3. Trait and Skill Approach
Advantages
Simplifies personality to a small number of basic dimensions
Looks for a deeper consistency underlying behaviors
Good assessment techniques
Allows for comparisons between individuals

4. Trait and Skill Approach
Limits
May reach too far trying to capture the individual in a few ways--oversimplification
May label people on the basis of test scores
Sometimes underestimates variability across situations
May underestimate the influence of unconscious motives and early experience

5. Trait and Skill Approach
View of free will
Allows for free will at the margins, after predispositions and motives exert their influence

6. Trait and Skill Approach
Common assessment techniques
Factor analysis, self-report, testing of styles and skills, document analysis, behavioral observation, interviews

7. Trait and Skill Approach
Implications for therapy
If much of personality is structured around a small number of key dispositions then we can change our goals and orientations but probably not our basic dispositional “natures”

8. History of Trait Approaches
Hippocrates' bodily humors

9. History of Trait Approaches
Character descriptions
Theophrastus’ “Penurious Man” (over 2000 years ago)
Charles Darwin
Individual differences are a topic for scientific study
Individual differences can arise through evolutionary processes
Francis Galton
Measurement of human abilities-Intelligence testing

10. Beginnings of the Modern Trait Approach—Carl Jung
Typology
Small number of “types”
Each person fits one “type” best
8 Types (4 functions x 2 attitudes)
Functions: Sensing, Thinking, Feeling, Intuiting
Attitudes: Extroversion, Introversion
Myers-Briggs Type Indicator

11. Everybody can have a 4 letter code – that would be your type (one from each below)
Extroversion (E) --- Introversion (I) Do you recharge your energy via external contact & activity (Extroversion) or spending time in your inner space (Introversion)?
Intuition (N) --- Sensing (S) Do you rely on your inner voice (Intuition) or observation (Sensing)?
Thinking (T) --- Feeling (F) When making decisions, what do you rely most on?  Your thoughts or your feelings?
Judgement (J) --- Perception (P) Do you tend to set schedules and organize your life (Judgement), or do you tend to leave the options open and see what happens (Perception)?

12. Raymond B. Cattell Used (and refined) factor analysis
data-driven, not theory-driven
reduced many different traits to sixteen trait clusters
Sixteen Personality Factors Questionnaire (16PF)
Collected many different types of data
Q-data
T-data
L-data

13. Typical Questions in a 16PF Type Personality Test
1. Do you like to talk to strangers? Do you consider yourself to be shy? 3.Do you like parties? 4.Do you feel bad about meeting new people? 5.Do you easily get bored? Do you like detailed work? 7.Do you find it easy to concentrate on such work as proofreading? Are you a perfectionist?

15. Primary Scales Factor A: Reserved-Warm Factor B: Concrete-Abstract
Factor C: Emotionally Reactive-Stable
Factor D: Low Activity-High Activity
(Child Only)
Factor E: Deferential-Dominant
Factor F: (Liveliness) Serious-Enthusiastic
Factor G: Nonconforming- Dutiful

16. Primary Scales Con’t Factor H: Shy-Socially Bold
Factor I: Objective, Unsentimental-Sensitive
Factor J: Low Attention Seeking-Internally Oriented (Child Only)
Factor L: Trusting-Suspicious, Skeptical
Factor M: Workable Oriented-Idea Oriented
Factor N: Forthright- Private, Discreet (Tact)

17. Primary Scales Con’t
Factor O: Self-Assured-Apprehensive Factor Q1: Attached to Familiar-Open to Change
Factor Q2: Group Oriented-Self Reliant
Factor Q3: Tolerates Disorder-Self Disciplined, Perfectionistic
Factor Q4: Relaxed, Placid-Tense (Muscle), High Energy, Impatient

18. Secondary Factor Equations 1
Extravertion: (.3A+.3F+.2H-.3N-.3Q2+4.4)
Anxiety: (-.4C+.3L+.4O+.4Q4+1.65)
Self-Control: (-.2F+.4G-.3M+.4Q3+3.85)
Independence: (.6E+.3H+.2L+.3Q1-2.2)
Tough-Mindedness: (-.2A-.5I-.3M- .5Q )

19. Most companies use the following three:
Extraversion - Introversion.
Level of anxiety.
Level of Tough-mindedness/Self- confidence.

20. Gordon Allport Personality: Each person has unique qualities
“The dynamic organization within the individual of those psychophysical systems that determine his characteristic behavior and thought”
Each person has unique qualities
Philosophical, humanistic, scholarly approach

21. Gordon Allport Regularities in behavior arise because
The individual views many situations and stimuli in the same way
Many of the individual’s behaviors are similar in their meaning
Functionally equivalent

22. Gordon Allport
He recognizes that some traits are hereditary, but these are shaped via learning
Uniqueness is derived from the infinite number of genetic combinations and environment (learning)
Studies the ‘normal’ and the ‘individual’ , not individuals or groups of individuals with pathology.

23. Gordon Allport Common Traits Individual Traits Proprium – unique self
Due to biological heritage and shared culture, there are some common traits
e.g., dominance in American culture
Individual Traits
Personal dispositions: unique to the individual
Proprium – unique self
The core of personality

24. Gordon Allport – Where does proprium come from?
FUNCTIONAL AUTONOMY of MOTIVES (…cognitive processes; our conscious plans and intentions are the most important…) and behaviors
Motivation occurs independent from past experience (differs here from Jung, Freud, Skinner etc.) – currents interests, attitudes, life style determines motivation
Personality is not constrained by what happened in the past
discrete childhood and adulthood personalities
Motives of an adult is independent from childhood
Proprium (unique self): propriate, level of functional autonomy that related to values, self-interests, and lifestyle
We keep the motives that would improve self-esteem, we want mastery, we want organized consistent integrated sense of self,
Developed in stages, as a result of infant-mother bond as a source of affection and security – so childhood and adulthood can separate for functional autonomy

25. Gordon Allport – Where does proprium come from?
FUNCTIONAL AUTONOMY of MOTIVES (…cognitive processes; our conscious plans and intentions are the most important…) and behaviors
Other low-level, routine, habitual behaviors are part of perseverative functional autonomy
---Not all behavior is functionally autonomous like reflexes, biological needs

26. Gordon Allport Individual Traits: Personal dispositions
In line with goals, motives, or styles
Cardinal dispositions (ruling passions)
Most pervasive traits
Central dispositions (fundamental qualities)
Secondary dispositions (Least important, displayed inconsistently)

27. Gordon Allport Method of data collection: Idiographic methods
Take into account each person’s uniqueness
Dairies, interviews, Q-sorts, etc.
Compensate for the limitations of nomothetic methods

28. R. B. Cattell and Allport
Cattell: 1/3 of our ‘person’ is determined by genetics, 2/3 social/environmental influences except for intelligence and timidity
ALLPORT: also believes that genetics influence certain traits although not all: look at his ‘common traits’
Person X environment interaction
Same in Allport and Cattell
Cattell: PAST AND PRESENT experiences are the focus
Allport pays more attention to PRESENT

29. The Big Five (McCrae & Costa)
Extroversion (Surgency)
Sociability, warmth, assertiveness
Agreeableness
Straightforwardness, trust, altruism, modesty
Conscientiousness (Lack of Impulsivity)
Competence, persistence, prudence
Neuroticism (Emotional Instability)
Anxiety, hostility, depression, vulnerability
Openness (Openness to Experience, Culture, Intellect)
Imagination, aesthetic sense, curiosity

30. Assessing the Big Five Extroversion items: 1. I talk a lot.
Not true of me Very true of me
Extroversion items:
1. I talk a lot.
2. I am quiet around strangers (reverse coded item).
3. I am the life of the party.

31. Assessing the Big Five Agreeableness items:
Not true of me Very true of me
Agreeableness items:
4. I make others feel at ease.
5. I tend to forgive others.
6. I am not much interested in other people's problems (reverse coded).

32. Assessing the Big Five Conscientiousness items:
Not true of me Very true of me
Conscientiousness items:
7. I am always well-prepared.
8. I persevere with my tasks.
9. I may shirk my duties (reverse coded).

33. Assessing the Big Five Neuroticism items: 10. I get irritated easily.
Not true of me Very true of me
Neuroticism items:
10. I get irritated easily.
11. I am calm most of the time (reverse coded)
12. I worry a lot.

34. Assessing the Big Five Openness items: 13. I have many ideas.
Not true of me Very true of me
Openness items:
13. I have many ideas.
14. I prefer concrete to abstract ideas (reverse coded).
15. I don't spend much time reflecting about things (reverse coded).

35. The Big Five Created through factor analysis
Emerged from data, not theory
Behavior genetics and cross-cultural research suggest these traits are “real”

36. The Big Five The Big Five predicts useful and important life outcomes
This does not mean there are only five traits
These traits are extremely broad and contain narrower traits within them

37. McCrae & Costa_BIG FIVE PERSONALITY SYSTEM_DIAGRAM OF PERSONALITY
OBJECTIVE BİOGRAPHY
Emotional reactions, shifts in life
BEHAVIORS
BIOLOGICAL BASES
EXTERNAL INFLUENCES,
Cultural norms, life events
SITUATIONS
CHARACTERİSTİC ADAPTATİONS:
CULTURALLY CONDITIONED PHENOMENA,
Personal strivings and attitudes
BASIC TENDENCIES
BIG 5
RECTANGLE: CORE CONCEPT
OVAL: INTERFACING COMPONENTS
SELF-CONCEPT
Schemas

38. Cross-Cultural Consistency & Stability
Five Factors in Eastern & Western cultures
Differences by culture
Stability (more evidence for extraversion and conscientiousness)
Childhood to adulthood
Early to mid-adulthood
Decreases in neuroticism
Adolescence to adulthood
Also, aggreeablenes and conscientousness increased
40’s to 60’s

39. Implications for Abnormal Psychology

40. Eysenck’s Big Three Eysenck different from Allport and Cattle:
Just focused on genetics, no consideration of person X situation interaction
Stability assumption
No change from childhood to adulthood (despite changing experiences and situations)
Deterministic

41. Eysenck’s Big Three
Traits are derived from three underlying biological systems
Extroversion—outgoingness and assertiveness vs. Introversion
Neuroticism—instability and apprehensiveness vs. Emotional Stability
Psychoticism—tendency toward psychopathology vs. Impulse control

42. Dimensions of Personality
ACCORDING TO EYSENCK:
All related to innate tendencies
Research more evidence for extraversion and neuroticism
A healthy society needs a combination of individuals with some of each aspect of personality

43. Extraversion Cortical Arousal
E scale: Extraversion Introversion Sociable, lively, active, assertive, sensation-seeking, carefree, venturesome, dominant [Hermetic, reserved in speech, passive, unassertive, stoical (indifferent), reserved, dependent, even-tempered, risk-averse]
Cortical Arousal
Mixed research results; some genetic basis
Introverts
Higher base level
Avoid excitement
Extraverts
Lower base level
Seek excitement

44. Neuroticism
N scale: Neuroticism Emotional Stability Anxious, depressed, guilt-feelings, low self-esteem, tense, irrational, shy, moody…..unconcerned, happy, without regret, high self-esteem, relaxed, rational, emotional confident, content, controlled.
Sympathetic Nervous System
Tends to be overreactive
Largely inherited
Research suggests neurotics work better under stress

45. Psychoticism (not grounded in reality, low impulse control)
P scale: Psychoticism High Impulse Control
Aggressive, cold, egocentric, unemphathetic, impersonal, creative [Nonagressive, warm, concerned for others, impulsive, personally involved, considerate, social, creative, empathetic, uncreative, persuadable]
Parents
Authoritarian & controlling parents
Mixed gender findings; some support for criminality

46. Primary Role of Heredity
Compared identical (monozygotic) to fraternal (dizygotic) twins
Identical twins more similar
Adoption studies show more similarity with biological parents

47. Consensus in Personality Judgments
The importance of consensus in determining the reality of personality traits
Friends’ judgments vs. strangers’ judgments (zero acquaintance)
Highest agreement for extroversion and conscientiousness

48. Ashton & Lee: HEXACO Six-Factor Model
Agreeableness
Tolerant, peaceful, gentle, agreeable
Conscientiousness
Disciplined, diligent, thorough, precise
Openness to Experience
Creative, innovative, unconventional
Honesty-Humility
Sincere, honest, faithful
Emotionality
Emotional, oversensitive, faithful, anxious
Extraversion
Outgoing, lively, sociable, cheerful

49. Motives
Internal psychobiological forces that help induce particular behavior patterns
Needs
Life-Tasks
Personal Strivings

50. Motivation: Henry Murray
Murray’s Needs
"A need is a construct (a convenient fiction or hypothetical concept) which stands for a force in the brain region, a force which organizes perception, apperception, intellection, conation and action in such a way as to transform in a certain direction an existing, unsatisfying situation. A need is sometimes provoked directly by internal processes of a certain kind but, more frequently (when in a state of readiness) by the occurrence of one of a few commonly effective press [environmental forces] Thus, it manifests itself by leading the organism to search for or to avoid encountering or, when encountered, to attend and respond to certain kinds of press Each need is characteristically accompanied by a particular feeling or emotion and tends to use certain modes to further its trend. It may be weak or intense, momentary or enduring. But usually it persists and gives rise to a certain course of overt behavior (or fantasy), which changes the initiating circumstance in such a way as to bring about an end situation which stills (appeases or satisfies) the organism (Murray, 1938, pp )" (Hall &

51. Assumption by Murray:
Behaviour is driven by an internal state of disequilibrium.
In other words we have a LACK of something and this drives us. We are dissatisfied and we desire something.
Copyright © Allyn & Bacon (2012)

52. Motivation: Henry Murray
Murray’s Needs
Need for Achievement: n Ach
The need to succeed on tasks that are set out by society
Need for Affiliation: N Aff
The need to draw near and win the affection of others

53. Motivation: Henry Murray
Need for Power: n Power
The need to seek positions and offices in which one can exert control over others
Need for Exhibition n Exh
The need to show one’s self before others and to entertain, amuse, shock, and excite others

54. Motivation changes how we see the world
Differing motivations can change our perceptions, even when judging completely objective characteristics such as distance.

55. Expressive Style
Vocal characteristics, facial expressions, body movements, etc.
Emotional Expressiveness
People differ in their overall expressiveness
Expressive people tend to be seen as charismatic and attractive
Extroversion and dominance are related to expressiveness

56. Skills Intelligence Social-Emotional Intelligence
Measures vocabulary use, mathematical skills, spatial reasoning, etc.
Social-Emotional Intelligence
Specific social and emotional abilities in dealing with other people

57. Timeline: Trait and Skill Approach

58. Timeline: Trait and Skill Approach

59. Timeline: Trait and Skill Approach

60. Timeline: Trait and Skill Approach

61. Timeline: Trait and Skill Approach