6. Units of E are typically eV and units of λ are typically nm
Units of E are typically eV and units of λ are typically nm. Using the hc = 1240 eV nm constant makes the problems much easier.

7. Gas Discharge Tubes

31. Isotopes cannot be separated by chemical means
Isotopes cannot be separated by chemical means. Separation can be achieved by processes that depend on the difference in masses of the isotopes.
Atomic Mass unit
1 u = x kg

34. E = mc2 = (1u)c2
E = ( x kg)(2.998 x 108 m/s)2
E = x J = MeV
1 u = MeV/c2

37. Number of neutrons, n

46. mi = u
mf = u
Δm = u
E = ΙΔmΙc2 = ( u)(931.5 MeV/u)
= MeV
Question: Why didn't we add in the mass of the beta particle?

51. Nuclear Binding Energy
126C has 6 11H and 6 10n
11H = u (includes electrons)
10n = u
126C = u
6( u) + 6( u) = u
The mass of the parts is more than the mass of the whole.

52. Eb = (Δm)c2
= ( u)(931.5 MeV/u)
= 92.2 MeV

53. Fission

56. Mass defect = u
E = Δmc2
E = (0.281 u)(931.5 MeV/u)
E = 262 MeV

58. 21H + 31H = 42He + 10n
Left side mass greater than right side mass.
E = Δmc2

59. Control rods - absorb neutrons to control rate of fission

60. Moderator - used to slow down neutrons so they can be absorbed

62. Structure of Matter

66. Geiger-Marsden Experiment (1909)

70. Rutherford Model

75. Hadrons
Hadrons are viewed as being composed of quarks, either as quark-antiquark pairs (mesons) or as three quarks (baryons). 
Hadrons are particles that interact by strong force
Ask: A proton is a hadron. Why?

81. Quark Confinement Cannot be isolated singularly
Strong force holds quarks together
Need to provide an energy that is proportional to the separation
That energy is so vast that a new quark-antiquark pair forms
Left with a meson, instead of an isolated quark
Cannot be directly observed

82. Quark Confinement
Think of trying to separate magnetic poles

83. Conservation of Strangeness
Why are some reactions observed and other not? To explain, we need strangeness…
The strangeness number S of a baryon is related to the number of strange quarks the particle has.
Strange quarks have S = -1, while strange antiquarks have S = +1
In any strong interaction, strangeness is always conserved.
S = # antistrange quarks – # strange quarks

84. Leptons
Present structure has 6 leptons: electron, muon, tau, and their associated neutrinos
Leptons have negative charge and a distinct mass, whereas their neutrinos have a neutral charge
Leptons interact only via the electromagnetic force carrier, the photon.
Leptons DO NOT participate in the strong interaction.
Quarks react to both the gluon and the photon.
Leptons and quarks also react to gravitons.

90. Feynman Diagram Rules
Particles - straight lines with arrows pointing upwards
Anti-particles - straight lines with arrows pointing downwards 
Electrons (Electromagnetic Force) - wavy lines
Gluons (Strong Force) - looped lines 
Bosons (Weak Force) - dashed lines 
Time is measured vertically(sometimes horizontally) 
Space is measured horizontally(sometimes vertically) 
Charge is conserved at each junction
Baryon number is conserved at each junction

91. Higgs Boson
This particle is the one that gives quarks and leptons their mass
Process where mass is not the property of the particle, but part of space itself, is the Higgs mechanism.
All of space covered by some sort of field called the Higgs field.
Just like EM field has photon associated with it, the particle associated with the Higgs field is the Higgs boson
For the Higgs mechanism to work => Higgs Field
On 4 July 2012, CERN found Higgs Boson => proves standard model

92. Leptons
Present structure has 6 leptons: electron, muon, tau, and their associated neutrinos
Leptons have negative charge and a distinct mass, whereas their neutrinos have a neutral charge
Leptons interact only via the electromagnetic force carrier, the photon.
Leptons DO NOT participate in the strong interaction.
Quarks react to both the gluon and the photon.
Leptons and quarks also react to gravitons.

96. Feynman Diagrams
Depict particle interactions using series of arrows to show the paths of the particles involved
Particles are represented with straight arrows
Exchange (force) particles are represented with either wavy lines (photons, W+, W- and Z0), or curly lines (gluons).

97. Feynman Diagrams Conservation Laws Particles before Charge
Particles after
Exchange particles
Conservation Laws
Charge
Baryon number
Lepton number
This will be about bookkeeping

98. Feynman Diagrams
The area to the left of the vertex represents before the interaction, the area to the right represents after the interaction.
E- repulsion
Explain space-time axes in this term

99. Incoming e- absorbs photon to produce more energetic e-
More energetic e- emits photon and less energetic e-

100. Feynman Diagrams
The area to the left of the vertex represents before the interaction, the area to the right represents after the interaction.
Observable particles are represented by straight lines with arrows pointing to the right. Antiparticles are represented by arrows to the left, even though all particles are always considered to be moving from left to right.

101. There is always one arrow pointing into a vertex and one arrow pointing away.
Unobservable exchange particles are represented by curly lines, without arrows.
The change in orientation of a line signifies that the motion of the particle has changed.
Each vertex joins two straight lines and typically one curly line.
The conservation laws can be applied to the interaction represented by a single vertex.

103. Pair production

104. Pair Annihilation e+ e-

105. Feynman Diagram Example
Explain what has happened in this Feynman diagram.
The up quark of a proton (uud) emits a gluon.
The gluon decays into a down quark and an anti-down quark.
Quarks cannot exist by themselves. Thus the two quarks produced above will quickly annihilate.
Circle uud to show proton

106. Feynman Diagram Rules
Particles - straight lines with arrows pointing upwards
Anti-particles - straight lines with arrows pointing downwards 
Electrons (Electromagnetic Force) - wavy lines
Gluons (Strong Force) - looped lines 
Bosons (Weak Force) - dashed lines 
Time is measured vertically(sometimes horizontally) 
Space is measured horizontally(sometimes vertically) 
Charge is conserved at each junction
Baryon number is conserved at each junction