1. Chapter 3 Table of Contents Section 1 Finding Locations on Earth
Models of the Earth
Table of Contents
Section 1 Finding Locations on Earth
Section 2 Mapping Earth’s Surface
Section 3 Types of Maps

2. Chapter 3 Objectives Distinguish between latitude and longitude.
Section 1 Finding Locations on Earth
Chapter 3
Objectives
Distinguish between latitude and longitude.
Explain how latitude and longitude can be used to locate places on Earth’s surface.
Explain how a magnetic compass can be used to find directions on Earth’s surface.

3. Chapter 3 Latitude Earth is a nearly perfect sphere. (1)
Section 1 Finding Locations on Earth
Chapter 3
Latitude
Earth is a nearly perfect sphere. (1)
The points at which Earth’s axis of rotation intersects Earth’s surface are used as reference points for defining direction. These points are the geographic North Pole and South Pole. (2) (3) (4)
Halfway between the poles, a circle called the equator divides Earth into North and Southern Hemispheres. (5)
A reference grid that is made up of equator and additional circles is used to locate places on Earth‘s surface. (6)

4. Chapter 3 Latitude, continued
Section 1 Finding Locations on Earth
Chapter 3
Latitude, continued
One set of circles describes positions north and south of the equator. These circles are known as parallels, and they express latitude. (7)
parallel any circle that runs east and west around Earth and that is parallel to the equator; a line of latitude (8)
Labeled N and S of equator (15)
latitude the angular distance north or south from the equator; expressed in degrees (9)

5. Chapter 3
Parallels

6. Chapter 3 Latitude, continued Section 1 Finding Locations on Earth
The diagram below shows Earth’s parallels.

7. Chapter 3 Latitude, continued Degrees of Latitude Minutes and Seconds
Section 1 Finding Locations on Earth
Chapter 3
Latitude, continued
Degrees of Latitude
Latitude is measured in degrees, and the equator is 0° latitude. The latitude of both the North Pole and the South Pole is 90°. (10) (11) (13)
Distance from equator to either pole is ¼ of a circle. (12)
In actual distance, 1° latitude equals about 111 km. (14)
Minutes and Seconds
Each degree of latitude consists of 60 equal parts, called minutes. One minute (symbol: °) of latitude equals 1.85 km.(16)
In turn, each minute is divided into 60 equal parts, called seconds (symbol: °). (17)

8. What is the latitude of Washington, D.C.?
38◦ 53’ 23“ (18)
To determine specific location of a place, you must know latitude, how far east or west place is along its circle of latitude. (19)

9. Chapter 3 Longitude, continued
Section 1 Finding Locations on Earth
Chapter 3
Longitude, continued
East-west locations are established by using meridians. (20)
meridian any semicircle that runs north and south around Earth from the geographic North Pole to the geographic South Pole; a line of longitude (21)
longitude the angular distance east or west from the prime meridian; expressed in degrees (24)

10. Chapter 3 Longitude, continued Section 1 Finding Locations on Earth
The diagram below shows Earth’s meridians.

11. Chapter 3 Longitude, continued Degrees of Longitude
Section 1 Finding Locations on Earth
Chapter 3
Longitude, continued
Degrees of Longitude
The meridian that passes through Greenwich, England is called the prime meridian. This meridian represents 0° longitude. Established by international agreement. (22) (23)
The meridian opposite the prime meridian, halfway around the world, is labeled 180°, and is called the International Date Line. (24)
Distance Between Meridians
The distance covered by a degree of longitude depends on where the degree is measured. The distance measured by a degree of longitude decreases as you move from the equator toward the poles. (30) (33)

12. Longitude
All locations east of prime meridian have longitudes between 0° and 180° E. (26)
All locations west of prime meridian have longitudes between 0° and 180° W. (27)
Longitude expressed more precisely in degrees, minutes and seconds. (28)
Precise location of Washington, D.C. is 38° 53’ 23” N and 77° 00’ 33” W (29)

13. Longitude A degree of longitude equals 111 km at equator. (31)
All meridians meet at the North and South Poles. (32)

14. Comparing Latitude and Longitude
Section 1 Finding Locations on Earth
Chapter 3
Comparing Latitude and Longitude

15. Chapter 3 Great Circles Section 1 Finding Locations on Earth
A great circle is any circle that divides the globe into halves, or marks the circumference of the globe. (35)
Any circle formed by two meridians of longitude that are directly across the globe from each other is a great circle. (36)
The equator is the only line of latitude that is a great circle. (37)
The route along a great circle is the shortest distance between two points on a sphere. As a result, great circles are commonly used in navigation, such as for air and sea routes. (34) (39)
Great circles can run any direction around globe. (38)

16. Great Circles, continued
Section 1 Finding Locations on Earth
Chapter 3
Great Circles, continued
The diagram below shows what a great circle is.

17. Chapter 3 Finding Direction Section 1 Finding Locations on Earth
One way to find direction on Earth is to use a magnetic compass. It points to geomagnetic north pole (44)
A magnetic compass can indicate direction because Earth has magnetic properties as if a powerful bar-shaped magnet were buried at Earth’s center at an angle to Earth’s axis of rotation. (40) (41)
The areas on Earth’s surface just above where the poles of the imaginary magnet would be are called the geomagnetic poles. (42)
The geomagnetic poles and the geographic poles are located in different places. (43)

18. Finding Direction, continued
Section 1 Finding Locations on Earth
Chapter 3
Finding Direction, continued
Magnetic Declination
The angle between the direction of the geographic pole and the direction in which the compass needle points is called magnetic declination. (45)
In the Northern Hemisphere, magnetic declination is measured in degrees east or west of the geographic North Pole. (46)
Because Earth’s magnetic field is constantly changing, the magnetic declinations of locations around the globe also change constantly.
By using magnetic declination, a person can use a compass to determine geographic north for any place on Earth. (48)

19. Finding Direction, continued
Compass needle aligns with geographic North Pole and geomagnetic north pole for all locations along 0° magnetic declination (47)

20. Finding Direction, continued
Section 1 Finding Locations on Earth
Chapter 3
Finding Direction, continued
The diagram below shows the magnetic declination of the United States.

21. Finding Direction, continued
Section 1 Finding Locations on Earth
Chapter 3
Finding Direction, continued
The Global Positioning System
Another way people can find their location on Earth is by using the global positioning system, or GPS. (49)
GPS is a satellite navigation system that is based on a global network of 24 satellites that transmit radio signals to Earth’s surface. (50)
A GPS receiver held by a person on the ground receives signals from three satellites to calculate the latitude, longitude, and altitude of the receiver on Earth. (51)

22. Section 2 Mapping Earth’s Surface
Chapter 3
Objectives
Explain two ways that scientists get data to make maps.
Describe the characteristics and uses of three types of map projections.
Summarize how to use keys, legends, and scales to read maps.

23. Mapping Earth’s Surface
A globe is a familiar model of Earth in the shape of a sphere. (1)
Globes can accurately represent the locations, relative areas, and relative shapes of Earth’s surface features. (2)
They are especially useful in studying large surface features, such as continents and oceans. (2)

24. How Scientists Make Maps
Section 2 Mapping Earth’s Surface
Chapter 3
How Scientists Make Maps
Because most globes are too small to show details of Earth’s surface, such as streams and highways, a great variety of maps have been developed for studying and displaying detailed information about Earth. (3)
The science of making maps is called cartography. Scientists who make maps are called cartographers. (4)
Cartographers use data from a variety of sources, such as from field surveys and remote sensing. (5)
Field surveys are conducted by walking or driving through an area to be mapped and making measurements of that area. (6)

25. How Scientists Make Maps, continued
Cartographers take the information gathered from field surveys and plot that information on a map. (7)
remote sensing the process of gathering and analyzing information about an object without physically being in touch with the object. (8)
Cartographers can collect information about a site without being there. They use equipment on satellites and airplanes to obtain images of Earth’s surface. (8)
Maps are often made by combining information from images gathered through remote sensing and information from field surveys. (9)

26. Chapter 3 Map Projections Section 2 Mapping Earth’s Surface
A map is a flat representation of Earth’s curved surface.
Transferring a curved surface to a flat map results in a distorted image of the curved surface. An area shown on a map may be distorted in size, shape, distance, or direction. (14) (15)
Over the years, cartographers have developed several ways to transfer the curved surface of Earth onto flat maps. These methods are called map projections.
map projection a flat map that represents a spherical surface (10)
No map projection is entirely accurate, but each kind of projection has advantages and disadvantages.

27. Map Projections, continued
The larger the area being shown, the greater the distortion tends to be. (16)
A map of the entire Earth would show the greatest distortion. (16)
But a map of a city would only be slightly distorted.(16)

28. Map Projections, continued
Section 2 Mapping Earth’s Surface
Chapter 3
Map Projections, continued
Cylindrical Projections
If you wrapped a cylinder of paper around a lighted globe and traced the outlines of continents, oceans, parallels, and meridians, a cylindrical projection would result. (11)
A cylindrical projection is accurate near the equator but distorts distances and sizes near the poles. (18)
One advantage to cylindrical projections is that parallels and meridians form a grid, which makes locating positions easier. (19)
On a cylindrical projection, shapes of small areas are usually well preserved. (19)

29. Map Projections, continued
Section 2 Mapping Earth’s Surface
Chapter 3
Map Projections, continued
Cylindrical projections differ from globes in that they appear as straight, parallel lines have an equal amount of space between them, while meridians on a globe come together at the poles. (17)
The diagram below shows a cylindrical projection.

30. Map Projections, continued
Section 2 Mapping Earth’s Surface
Chapter 3
Map Projections, continued
Azimuthal Projections
A projection made by placing a sheet of paper against a globe such that the paper touches the globe at only one point is called an azimuthal projection. (12)
On an azimuthal projection, little distortion occurs at a the point of contact, but the unequal spacing between parallels causes a distortion in both direction and distance that increases as distance from the point of contact increases. (20)
One advantage of azimuthal projections is that on these maps, great circles appear as straight lines. Thus, azimuthal projections are useful for plotting navigational paths.

31. Map Projections, continued
Azimuthal Projections
Azimuthal projections are very helpful in plotting navigational routes in air travel.
This is because a great circle appears as a straight line on an azimuthual projection. (21)
By drawing a straight line between any two points on this projection, navigators can find a great-circle route. (21)

32. Map Projections, continued
Section 2 Mapping Earth’s Surface
Chapter 3
Map Projections, continued
The diagram below shows an azimuthal projection.

33. Map Projections, continued
Section 2 Mapping Earth’s Surface
Chapter 3
Map Projections, continued
Conic Projections
A projection made by placing a paper cone over a lighted globe so that the axis of the cone aligns with the axis of the globe is known as a conic projection. (13)
Areas near the parallel where the cone and the globe are in contact are distorted least. (23)
A series of conic projections where the cone touches the globe at slightly different latitude and can be used to increase accuracy by mapping a number of neighboring areas and fitting the adjoining areas together to make a polyconic projection. (24)
On a polyconic projection, the relative sizes and shapes of small areas on the map are nearly the same as those on the globe.

34. Map Projections, continued
Section 2 Mapping Earth’s Surface
Chapter 3
Map Projections, continued
The cone touches a globe in a conic projection along one parallel of latitude. (22)
The diagram below shows a conic projection.

35. Chapter 3 Reading a Map Direction on a Map
Section 2 Mapping Earth’s Surface
Chapter 3
Reading a Map
Maps provide information through the use of symbols.
You must understand the symbols, be able to find directions, and calculate distances in order to read a map. (25)
Direction on a Map
Maps are commonly drawn with north at the top, east at the right, west at the left, and south at the bottom. (27)
Some maps use parallels of latitude and meridians of longitude to indicate direction and location.
Many maps also include a compass rose, which is a symbol that indicates the cardinal directions (north, east, south, and west), or an arrow that indicates north, which is generally labeled and may not point to top of map. (31) (32) (33)

36. Reading a Map, continued
The first step to read a map is determine how the compass directions are displayed. (26)
Parallels run from side to side. (28)
Meridians run from top to bottom. (28)
USGS maps mark the northern and southern boundary with parallels (29)
Eastern and western boundaries are marked with meridians of longitude. (30)

37. Reading a Map, continued
Section 2 Mapping Earth’s Surface
Chapter 3
Reading a Map, continued
Symbols
Symbols are commonly used on maps to represent features such as cities, highways, rivers, and other points of interest.
Symbols may resemble the features that they represent, or they may be more abstract. (35)
Symbols are commonly explained in a legend.
legend a list of map symbols and their meanings (34)

38. Section 2 Mapping Earth’s Surface
Chapter 3
Information on Maps

39. Reading a Map, continued
Section 2 Mapping Earth’s Surface
Chapter 3
Reading a Map, continued
Map Scales
scale the relationship between the distance shown on a map and the actual distance (36)
Map scales are commonly expressed as graphic scales, fractional scales, or verbal scales.
A graphic scale is a printed line that has markings that represent units of measure, such as meters or kilometers. (37)
A fractional scale is a ratio that indicates how distance on Earth relates to distance on the map. (38)
A verbal scale expresses scale in sentence form. (39)

40. Reading a Map, continued
Map Scales
To find the actual distance between two points on Earth using a graphic scale, you first measure the distance between the points as shown on the map. Then, you compare that measurement with the map scale. (40)
A fractional scale of 1:10,000 on a map means that one unit of distance on the map represents 10,000 of the same unit on Earth. (41)
A fractional scale stays the same with any system of measurement, regardless of units. An example would be the scale 1:100 could be read as 1 in. equals 100 in. or as 1 c m equals 100 cm. (42)

41. Reading a Map, continued
Section 2 Mapping Earth’s Surface
Chapter 3
Reading a Map, continued
Isograms
isogram a line on a map that represents a constant or equal value of a given quantity (43)
The second part of the word, -gram, can be changed to describe the measurement being graphed. For example, when the line connects points of equal temperature the line is called an isotherm. When the line connects points of equal atmospheric pressure, the line is called an isobar. (44) (45)
Isograms can be used to plot many types of data, such as atmospheric pressure, temperature, precipitation, gravity, magnetism, density, elevation, chemical composition, and many others. (48)

42. Reading a Map, continued
Isograms
Isobars on a weather map show that all points along an isobar share the same pressure value. (46)
Isobars never cross each other because one location cannot have two air pressures. (47)

43. Chapter 3
Section 3 Types of Maps
Objectives
Explain how elevation and topography are shown on a map.
Describe three types of information shown in geologic maps.
Identify two uses of soil maps.

44. Types of Maps
Earth scientists look at characteristics of areas on maps, including:
Types of rocks
Differences on air pressure
Varying depths of groundwater (1)
Advantages of Topographic Maps
Topographic maps provide more detailed information about the surface of Earth than either drawings or projection maps. Such as island size, shape, and elevation (9)

45. Chapter 3 Topographic Maps Section 3 Types of Maps
One of the most widely used maps is called a topographic map, which shows the surface features of Earth, both natural and constructed like buildings and roads. (2) (4)
Made by using aerial photographs and survey points collected in field. (5)
topography the size and shape of the land surface features of a region (3)
elevation the height of an object above sea level (6)
Mean sea level, or place from which elevation is measured is the point midway between highest and lowest tide levels of ocean. It is 0. (7) (8)

46. Topographic Maps, continued
Chapter 3
Section 3 Types of Maps
Topographic Maps, continued
Elevation on Topographic Maps
On topographic maps, elevation is shown by using contour lines.(10)
contour line a line that connects points of equal elevation on a map (11)
The difference in elevation between one contour line and the next is called the contour interval. The contour interval is selected based on the relief of the area being mapped. (13)
relief the difference between the highest and lowest elevations in a given area (14)
Every fifth contour line is darker than the four lines one either side of it. This index contour makes reading elevation easier. (17)

47. Topographic Maps, continued
If relief is high on map, the contour interval is high. It may be 50 or 100 m. (15)
If relief is low on map, the contour interval is low. It may be 1 or 2 m. (16)
Exact elevations are marked with an x and label. (18)

48. Topographic Maps, continued
Chapter 3
Section 3 Types of Maps
Topographic Maps, continued
Landforms on Topographic Maps
The spacing and direction of contour lines indicate the shapes of the landforms represented on a topographic map. (12)(19)
Closely spaced contour lines indicate that the slope is steep. (21)
Widely spaced contour lines indicate that the land is relatively level. (20)

49. Topographic Maps, continued
Chapter 3
Section 3 Types of Maps
Topographic Maps, continued
Landforms on Topographic Maps, continued
A contour line that bends to form a V shape indicates a valley. The bend in the V points toward the higher end of the valley; this V points upstream, or in the direction from which the water flows, if there is a stream. Because water flows from high to low elevation. (22) (23)
Width of V shows the width of a valley. (24)
Contour lines that form closed loops indicate a hilltop or a depression. Closed loops that have short straight lines perpendicular to the inside of the loop indicate a depression. (25) (26)

50. Topographic Maps, continued
Chapter 3
Section 3 Types of Maps
Topographic Maps, continued
The diagram below shows how topographic maps represent landforms.

51. Topographic Maps and Contour Lines
Chapter 3
Section 3 Types of Maps
Topographic Maps and Contour Lines

52. Topographic Maps, continued
Chapter 3
Section 3 Types of Maps
Topographic Maps, continued
Topographic Map Symbols
Symbols are used to show certain features on topographic maps.
Symbol color indicates the type of feature. Constructed features, such as buildings, are shown in black. Highways are shown in red. Bodies of water are colored blue, and forested areas are colored green.(27) (28) (29) (30) (33)
Contour lines are brown or black. (31)
Areas not verified by field exploration are purple. (32)

53. Index Contour, Contour Interval, and Relief
Chapter 3
Section 3 Types of Maps
Index Contour, Contour Interval, and Relief

54. Chapter 3 Geologic Maps Section 3 Types of Maps
Geologic maps are designed to show the distribution of geologic features, such as the types of rocks found an a given area and the locations of faults, folds, and other structures. (34) (35)
They are created on top of base maps, which provide surface features, like topography or roads, to help identify location of geologic units. (36) (37)
A geologic unit is a volume of rock of a given age range and rock type. (38)

55. Geologic Maps, continued
Rock Units on Geologic Maps
On geologic maps, geologic units are distinguished by color. Units of similar ages are generally assigned colors in the same color family, such as different shades of blue. (39)
In addition to assigning a color, geologists assign a set of letters to each rock unit. This set of letters symbolizes the age of the rock [capital letter] by geologic period and the name of the unit or the type of rock [lowercase letter]. (40)

56. Geologic Maps, continued
Chapter 3
Section 3 Types of Maps
Geologic Maps, continued
Other Structures on Geologic Maps
Other markings on geologic maps are contact lines. A contact line indicates places at which two geologic units meet, called contacts. (41)
The two main types of contacts are faults and depositional contacts. (42)
Geologic maps also indicate the strike and slip of rock beds. Strike indicates the direction in which the beds run, and dip indicates the angle at which the beds tilt. (43)

57. Chapter 3 Soil Maps Section 3 Types of Maps
Scientists construct soil maps to classify, map, and describe soils, based on surveys of soils in a given area. (44)
Based on surveys that record information about properties of soil. (45)
Natural Resources and Conservation Service is in charge of soil data. It is part the Department of Agriculture. (46) (47)

58. Soil Surveys
A soil survey consists of three main parts: text, maps, and tables. (48)
The text includes general information about the geology, topography, and climate of the area. (49)
The tables describe the types and volumes of soils in the area. (49)
The maps show the approximate locations and types of the different soils. (49)

59. Chapter 3 Soil Maps, continued Uses of Soil Maps
Section 3 Types of Maps
Soil Maps, continued
Uses of Soil Maps
Soil maps are valuable tools for agriculture and land management.
Soil maps are used by farmers, agricultural engineers, and government agencies.
The information in soil maps and soil surveys helps developers and agencies identify ways to conserve and use soil and plan sites for future development. (50)

60. Chapter 3 Other Types of Maps
Section 3 Types of Maps
Other Types of Maps
Maps are useful to every branch of Earth science.
Maps that show topography and rock and soil types are only one useful type of map.
Some Earth scientists use maps to show the location and flow of both water and air by using isograms to connect points with identical data. (51)
Other types of Earth scientists use maps to study changes in Earth’s surface over time.

61. Other Type of Maps, continued
Meteorologists use maps to record and predict weather (52)
Plot precipitation, air pressure, and weather fronts on maps. (53)
You can use maps to record location and direction of flow of groundwater. (54)
You can also use maps to study changes in topography, available resources, and factors that affect climate. (55)