1. Congress
Chapter 12

2. The Representatives and Senators
The Job
Salary of $174,000with retirement benefits
Office space in D.C. and at home and staff to fill it.
Travel allowances and franking privileges.
But, there’s often 10 to 14 hour days, lots of time away from the family, and lots of pressure from different people to “do the right thing.”

4. How Congress is Organized to Make Policy
American Bicameralism
Bicameral: Legislature divided into two houses.
The House
435 members, 2 year terms of office.
Initiates all revenue bills, more influential on budget.
House Rules Committee
Limited debates.
The Senate
100 members, 6 year terms of office.
Gives “advice & consent”, more influential on foreign affairs.
Unlimited debates. (filibuster)
From Table 12.3

5. How Congress is Organized to Make Policy
Congressional Leadership
The House
Lead by Speaker of the House - elected by House members.
Presides over House.
Major role in committee assignments and legislation.
Assisted by majority leader and whips.
The Senate
Formerly lead by Vice President.
Really lead by Majority Leader- chosen by party members.
Assisted by whips.
Must work with Minority leader.

6. “Well, the speaker has awesome power. Make no mistake about that
“Well, the speaker has awesome power. Make no mistake about that. In the Senate, you have to get 60 [votes] over there, there are different considerations on how you bring something to the floor and how you pass a law. But in the House, the speaker has awesome power. He or she is able to set the legislative agenda to affect the timing of how legislation is brought to the floor. And you also have the power of recognition as to whom you will recognize in order to bring up a subject or speak on legislation. That really is a big deal. It's about time: Who gets the time on the floor.”
- Nancy Pelosi

7. The National Legislature
Article I of the Constitution establishes a bicameral (two-house) Congress.
Congress is a bicameral body primarily because the Framers:
(1) Historical--were familiar with British, colonial, and early State practices
(2) Practical--agreed to the Connecticut Compromise at the Philadelphia Convention
(3) Theoretical--hoped that one house would act as a check on the other
A term of Congress extends over two years with two regular sessions each term—one per year.
Qualifications for House Members
25 years old
Citizen of the US for at least 7 years
Must inhabit the State from which elected
Tradition also dictates that they live in their district

8. Special Sessions Term of Congress Session
President may call to deal with an emergency
Only 26 that include both houses have ever been called
Senate has been called alone 46 times (last in 1933)
The House has never been called alone
Term of Congress
Date of terms changed in 1933 by the 20th Amendment
Was March 4th
Now noon of the 3rd day of January
Session
Beginning day may be changed by Congress
Congress adjourns when it sees fit
Must have consent of both houses
President may adjourn with a Prorogue if both houses can’t agree on a date

9. The House of Representatives
The House of Representatives is the larger of the two chambers with 435 seats (members) which are based on population.
Apportionment—number of seats each state gets in The House
Each state is guaranteed at least one representative (some only have one—AK, De, MT, ND, SD, VT, WY)
DC., Guam, Virgin Islands and American Samoa each have a delegate and Puerto Rico has a resident Commissioner—THESES ARE NOT FULL FLEDGED MEMBERS OF CONGRESS
Each State is entitled to at least one seat in the House and members are elected for a term of two years with no limit on the number of terms that may be served (current longest John Dingell: 58 years, 306 days)
Members are elected from districts within the States that are designed by the State legislatures.

10. Reapportionment Procedure
Article I commands congress to reapportion (redistribute) The House after every decennial census (every 10 years)
Before the first census The House was set at 65 seats (went to 106 in 1792)
Grew until 1920
Number of seats was at More seats would have made The House “unruly”
Congress did NOT reapportion
Reapportionment Act of 1929
set up an “automatic” reapportionment
Set the permanent size of the House at 435 (Alaska and Hawaii did change the size temporarily)
Procedure
Census Bureau decides # of seats
President sends to Congress
Plan goes into effect within 60 days
The state legislatures are then allowed to draw their states congressional districts
This process has lead to:
Gerrymandering
Protected “safe” districts
Court challenges

11. Congressional Elections
Held on the same day across the country = Tuesday following the 1st Monday in November
Off-year elections
Non Presidential election
The party out of the White House usually gains seats
Congressional Districts
435 separate districts in the US
All are single-member districts
Each state is responsible for drawing it’s own districts
Must be contiguous
Must be “compact territory”
The Supreme Court ruled that the districts must be drawn in accord with the “one-person, one vote” rule.
Law is constantly violated

13. Gerrymandering Gerrymandering
Districts drawn to the advantage of the political party that controls the State’s legislature
Two general forms (both to make safe districts)
Concentrate the opposition’s voters in one district
Spread the opposition thin
Court has tried to fix the problem
Wesberry v. Sanders – 1964
“one person one vote”
Gomillion v. Lightfoot – 1960
“majority-minority districts”
Bush v. Vera – 1996
Race can be factor, just not controlling factor

14. The Story of Texas

15. The Senate
The Constitution stipulates that each State is to have two senators from each of the current fifty States.
Senators serve six-year terms and must be residents of the States they represent.
Continuous body—all seats are never up for election at the same time
Only a third are up for election at any one time
The Constitution sets higher qualifications for senators than it does for representatives:
(1) Members of the Senate must be at least 30 years old versus 25 years for representatives.
(2) Senators must have been citizens for at least nine years in contrast with seven for representatives.
The Senate also has the Filibuster

16. Congressional Elections
Who Wins Elections?
Incumbent: Those already holding office.
Figure 12.1

17. Congressional Elections
The Advantages of Incumbents
Advertising:
The goal is to be visible to your voters.
Frequent trips home & newsletters are used.
Credit Claiming:
Service to individuals in their district.
Casework: specifically helping constituents get what they think they have a right to.
Pork Barrel: federal projects, grants, etc. made available in a congressional district or state.

18. Congressional Elections
The Advantages of Incumbents
Position Taking:
Portray themselves as hard working, dedicated individuals.
Occasionally take a partisan stand on an issue.
Weak Opponents:
Most opponents are inexperienced in politics.
Most opponents are unorganized and underfunded.
Campaign Spending:
Challengers need to raise large sums to defeat an incumbent.
PACs give most of their money to incumbents.
Does PAC money “buy” votes in Congress?

19. Congressional Elections
The Role of Party Identification
Most members represent the majority party in their district.
Defeating Incumbents
Some incumbents face problems after a scandal or other complication in office.
They may face redistricting.
They may face massive voter retaliation.

20. Congressional Elections
Open Seats
Greater likelihood of competition.
Stability and Change
Incumbents winning provides stability in Congress.
But, it makes it more difficult to change Congress through elections.
Are term limits an answer?

21. How Congress is Organized to Make Policy
The Committees and Subcommittees
Four types of committees:
Standing committees: subject matter committees handle different policy areas.
Joint committees: few policy areas- made up of House & Senate members.
Conference committees: resolve differences in House and Senate bills.
Select committees: created for a specific purpose.

22. How Congress is Organized to Make Policy
The Committees and Subcommittees
The Committees at Work: Legislation and Oversight
Committees work on the 11,000 bills every year.
Some hold hearings and “mark up” meetings.
Oversight involves hearings and other methods of checking the actions of the executive branch.
As the size of government grows, oversight grows too.

23. How Congress is Organized to Make Policy
The Committees and Subcommittees
Getting on a Committee
Members want committee assignments that will help them get reelected and gain influence.
New members express their committee preferences to the party leaders.
Support of the party is important in getting on the right committee.
Parties try to grant committee preferences.

24. How Congress is Organized to Make Policy
The Committees and Subcommittees
Getting Ahead on the Committee: Chairs and the Seniority System.
The chair is the most important position for controlling legislation.
Chairs were once chosen strictly by the seniority system.
Now seniority is a general rule, and members may choose the chair of their committee.

25. How Congress is Organized to Make Policy
Caucuses: The Informal Organization of Congress
Caucus: A group of members of Congress sharing some interest or characteristic.
Caucuses pressure for committee meetings and hearings and for votes on bills.
Caucuses can be more effective than lobbyists.

26. How Congress is Organized to Make Policy
Congressional Staff
Personal staff: Work for the member. Mainly providing constituent service, but help with legislation too.
Committee staff: organize hearings, research & write legislation, target of lobbyists.
Staff Agencies: CRS, GAO, CBO provide specific information to Congress.

27. The Congressional Process
Legislation:
Bill: A proposed law.
Anyone can draft a bill, but only members of Congress can introduce them.
More rules in the House than in the Senate.
Party leaders play a vital role in steering bills through both houses, but less in the Senate.

28. How a Bill Becomes a Law (Figure 12.2)

29. The Congressional Process
Presidents and Congress: Partners and Protagonists
Presidents have many resources to influence Congress (often called the “Chief Legislator”).
In order to “win” in Congress, the president must win several battles in each house.
Presidential leadership of Congress is at the margins and is most effective as a facilitator.

30. Enacting Laws Bill – a proposed law Resolutions Joint resolution
Force of law
Temporary matter
Concurrent
State a position
Not the force of law

31. Figure 12.5