1. TRANSLATION AS COMMUNICATION
- German functionalism
- P. Newmark: a practical approach to translation

2. FUNCTIONAL THEORIES OF TRANSLATION
REISS: TEXT TYPES (FUNCTION)
VERMEER + REISS: SKOPOS THEORY
NORD: TRANSLATION-ORIENTED TEXT ANALYSIS

3. REISS: TEXT TYPE (1970s)
Focus: functional relationship between source and target texts
= equivalence must be sought at text level
integral communicative performance
AIM: systematizing assessment of translations ('the transmission of the
ST dominant function is the determining factor by which the TT is judged')
Reference to Bühler's 3 functions of language (informative, expressive, appellative)
CHARACTERISTICS OF TEXT TYPE:
1) 'plain communication of facts': information, knowledge. L is logical/referential; focus on content/topic INFORMATIVE
2) 'creative composition': aesthetic dimension of L; focus on author/sender + form of message EXPRESSIVE
3) 'inducing behavioural responses': aim is to appeal to or persuade reader/receiver to act in a certain way; form is dialogic, focus appellative OPERATIVE

4. .../... SPECIFIC TRANSLATION METHODS ACCORDING TO TEXT TYPE
1) TT of informative texts transmit full referential/conceptual content. Plain prose + explicitation when required.
2) TT of expressive texts transmit aesthetic + artistic form of ST. 'Identifying method' = translator adopting standpoint of ST author
3) TT of operative texts produce desired response in TT receiver. 'Adaptive method', creating equivalent effect among TT receivers.
Careful: sometimes function of TT is different from ST
(e.g. Gulliver's Travels; novels adapted into films; brochure translated in L2 class)

6. VERMEER'S SKOPOS THEORY (1978/84)
Translation + Interpreting = activities through which communicative verbal and non-verbal signs are transferred into another language
Translation = to produce a text in a target setting, for a target purpose and target addressees in target circumstances
Communication = human action = intentional + purposeful SKOPOS = Greek for 'aim'
Focus on translation PURPOSE, which determines methods + strategies to produce functionally adequate TT WHY is ST translated?
EQUIVALENCE sought at the level of 'global function' within each culture
ST = source of information (questioning status of the 'original')
Crucial: translation brief mercenarism?

7. GENERAL RULE + ANALYTICAL RULES
Translate/interpret/speak/write in a way that enables your text/translation to function in the situation in which it is used and with the people who want to use it and precisely in the way they want it to function.
Analytical rules (Vermeer + Reiss 1984):
1) Translatum (TT) determined by its skopos
2) TT = offer of info in a T culture and TL concerning an offer of info in a S culture and SL
3) TT does not initiate offer of info in a clearly reversible way (not necessarily same function)
4) TT must be internally coherent
5) TT must be coherent with ST
6) rules above are in hierarchical order, with skopos prevailing

8. Coherence rule: TT must be interpretable as coherent with TT receiver's situation (considering his/her circumstances + knowledge)
Fidelity rule: there must be coherence between TT and ST (ST info received by translator + his/her interpretation of info + info encoded for TT receiver
Interesting: same text can be translated in different ways according to purpose (e.g. will)

9. TRANSLATION-ORIENTED TEXT ANALYSIS (Nord, 1988/97)
More detailed functional model incorporating elements of text analysis (text organization at/above sentence level) in order to balance ST.
FUNCTION + LOYALTY (TT compatible with ST author's intentions)
Two types of translation product and process:
DOCUMENTARY translation: 'document of a S culture communication between author and ST recipient' (e.g. literary translation – access to ideas of ST, but reader aware that it is translated; word for word tr; exoticizing tr. = certain culture-specific lexical items retained for local colour)
INSTRUMENTAL translation: 'independent message-transmitting instrument in a new communicative action in T culture; meant to fulfil its communicative purpose without recipient's awareness of its S'.

12. ASPECTS OF FUNCTIONALIST APPROACHES USEFUL IN TRANSLATOR TRAINING

14. Hierarchy of translation problems. (not bottom-up, but TOP-DOWN)

15. To sum up: Functionalist contributions:
- look at translation as human action facilitating intercultural communication
- emphasize link between language and culture
- include non-literary texts in academic analysis and teaching
- adopt a practical approach that considers the reality of the profession
Criticism: - is this approach valid also for literary texts?
- not enough attention to ST linguistic nature, nor to reproduction of microfeatures (even if skopos is fulfilled, TT may be inadequate at stylistic or semantic level of individual segments.
- TT manipulation – translator's empowerment/responsibility

16. Newmark: emphasis on practice
. the intention of the text (the SL writer's attitude to the subject matter)
. the intention of the translator
. text style(s): narrative, description, discussion, dialogue
. the readership (of both ST and its TT)
. stylistic scales: the scale of formality, of generality/difficulty and emotional tone
. setting (where will the text be published in the TL?)
. the quality of the writing
. connotation and denotation
. cultural aspects including neologisms, metaphors, institutional terms, culture-specific words, etc.

17. Newmark’s categorization
SL emphasis TL emphasis Word-for-word translation Adaptation
Literal translation Free translation
Faithful translation Idiomatic translation
Semantic translation Communicative translation

18. COMMUNICATIVE T.
Vast majority of texts: journalism, informative articles and books, textbooks, reports, scientific and technological writing, non- personal correspondence, propaganda, publicity, public notices, standardized forms, popular fiction.
SEMANTIC T.
Literary, philosophical, religious, political, scientific and technical texts, provided they are characterized by originality of expression.
COGNITIVE T.
Mental breaking down of ST into grammatical and lexical units of signification. Who? What? For whom? Why? Where? When?