1. This Weeks Objective
I will be able to relay the concepts learned about research method’s in psychology (in group activities, individual assignments and on tests)

2. What are Some Questions You Have About Human Behavior; or, Why People Do What They Do?

3. Some Research Topics
How does anxiety affect people’s desire to be with others (affiliation need)?
Do different cultures react differently to stress?
Is the onset of cancer more likely after a stressful life event?

4. The Scientific Approach (Experiment): A Search for Laws
Goals of Scientific Approach:
1 Measurement and description of a phenomenon (school performance). How do I measure it? And, what exactly is it?
2 To predicting why an event occurs-These predictions are called hypotheses
Psychologists assume that behavior is governed by discernible laws or principles; these just need to be uncovered.
The goals of the scientific enterprise of psychology are:
To measure and describe a phenomenon, for example sociability.
To understand and predict…psychologists form hypotheses about how variables interact. A hypothesis is a tentative statement about the relationship between 2 or more variables. Variables are the things that are observed or controlled in a study.
To apply and control…information gathered by scientists may be of some practical value in helping to solve problems in schools, businesses, mental health centers, etc.

5. Understanding and Prediction
Hypothesis=A tentative statement about the relationship of -two or more variables -about how things work (Students that eat breakfast perform better on memory tests-what are the two variables here?) - an educated guess, a prediction. Variable=any measurable conditions, events, or behaviors controlled or observed in a study

6. RESEARCH
Applied Research=has practical and immediate application; Use research results to change a negative event or to create a positive outcome
So, if it is found that students who eat breakfast perform better, schools will initiate a breakfast program (Applied Research)
Basic Research=looks at questions of interest that may not have immediate, real world application
How does anxiety affect people’s desire to be with others (affiliation need)?
Do different cultures react differently to stress?

7. - 3 Application and Control
If we observe a relationship between breakfast eaters and performance we formulate a theory
Theory=explains organized observations and predicts behavior or events
only change as new info. available
more permanent-have many facts to support it

8. The Scientific Method: Terminology
Operational definitions are used to CLEARLY explain what is meant by each variable(define breakfast, school performance)-USE THIS DEFINITION!!!!
Participants or subjects are the people/animals whose behavior is observed in a study from the population
Population-(AP Students at EvergladesHS) is where participants come from and the larger group being studied and who predictions are made about
Data collection allow for empirical (numbers) observation and measurement
Statistics (math) used to analyze data and decide whether hypotheses were supported
Psychologists use operational definitions to clarify what their variables mean…what exactly is sociability?
Researchers use procedures for making empirical observations and measurements, including direct observation, questionnaires, interviews, psychological tests, physiological recordings, and examination of archival records.
They depend on statistics to analyze data and decide whether hypotheses were supported…observations are converted into numbers, which are then compared.

9. I’m Hungry

10. Experimental Research: Looking for Causes
Experiment = manipulation of one variable under controlled conditions so that resulting changes in another variable can be observed (feeding one group of students to see its effect on memory)
GOAL=Detection of cause-and-effect relationships
Independent variable (IV) = variable manipulated ( ) to see its effect on another variable:
Dependent variable (DV) = variable effected by manipulation ( ) of the IV
How does food (IV) affect memory performance (DV)? Tell me a hypothesis
An experiment is a research method where there is manipulation of one variable under carefully controlled conditions so that resulting changes in another variable can be observed…key word “resulting.”
Experiments are very powerful in that they allow for detection of cause-and effect relationships…Does X cause Y?
The IV is the variable that the experimenter controls or manipulates…the DV is the variable thought to DEPEND (at least in part) on manipulation of the IV.
If we wanted to know how X affects Y, X would be the IV, and Y would be the DV.

11. Experimental and Control Groups: The Logic of the Scientific Method
Experimental group (the group that receives manipulation of the independent variable-In our experiment= )
Control group (similar subjects but is the group that does not receive the manipulation given to the experimental group-( )
EVERYTHING ELSE FOR THESE TWO GROUPS MUST BE THE SAME
WHY???????????????
In an experiment, the investigator assembles two groups who are as alike as possible, an experimental group (who receives a special treatment in regard to the independent variable) and a control group (who do not receive the special treatment). Then, after they administer the treatment, if the two groups differ on the dependent variable, it MUST be due to the treatment.
An extraneous variable is a variable, other than the independent variable, that may influence the dependent variable.
Confounding of variables occurs when participants in one group of subjects are inadvertently different in some way from participants in the other group, influencing outcome.
Random assignment of subjects is used to control for confounding variables.

12. Identify the Independent and Dependent Variables
Students who ride the bus to school are more intelligent
Children who view aggressive cartoons are more likely to act aggressively
AP Psychology students who eat chocolate perform better on a memory test of unrelated words

13. Independent and Dependent Variables
Students who ride the bus to school (IV) are more intelligent(DV)
Children who view aggressive cartoons(IV) are more likely to act aggressively(DV)
AP Psychology students who eat chocolate(IV) perform better on a memory tests of unrelated words (DV)

14. What are the operational definitions
What are the operational definitions? We clearly state what is meant by “riding the bus” or “more intelligent “ so that the experiment can be repeated
Students who ride the bus to school are more intelligent
CHildren who view aggressive cartoons are more likely to act aggressively
AP Psychology students who eat chocolate perform better on vocabulary tests

15. Research methods: general strategies for conducting scientific studies
Random Sampling=everyone in the population has an equal chance of being selected as a subject Ex=
Random assignment =all subjects have an equal chance of being assigned to the control or experimental groups Ex=

16. Experimental and Control Groups: The Logic of the Scientific Method Extraneous and confounding variables
Confounding/ Extraneous Variables=any variables other then the independent variables influence the dependent variable in a study (ex: lighting in room, test control and experimental groups at different times of day,etc..) (ex: In US, breast fed babies healthier than bottle fed-confounding variable may be____________)

17. Figure 2.5 The basic elements of an experiment

18. Experimental Designs: Variations
Levels of the Independent variable=
1. the independent variable has two levels: experimental and control= receiving or not receiving chocolate,
2. or two or more IVs (chocolate and lighting)= the number of levels of an independent variable is the number of IVs.
Levels of DV=Use more than one dependent variable (measure performance in school and satisfaction in school)
Experimental designs can be quite complex. These are a few of the ways designs can vary.
Sometimes, a single group can be used for both experimental and control conditions…for example, you might study the effects of having the radio on when people work on an assembly line…you’d collect data from the same group of workers twice, once with the radio on and once with it off.
Researchers can also manipulate more than one IV to see what the combined effect is…sometimes, the effect of one variable depends on the effect of another…for example, you might find that having the radio on increases productivity in workers, but only in the morning…in this example, time of day interacts with the effects of the radio.
Researchers can also use more than one dependent variable in a single study to get a more complete picture of the effect of the independent variable. For example, we might measure not only number of pieces workers finish when the radio is allowed to be on while they work, but also worker satisfaction, absenteeism, and attitude. Having 1 day less a month absenteeism might make up for a slight decrease in productivity.

19. Figure 2.6 Manipulation of two independent variables in an experiment

20. Reliability-same results when study is replicated (repeated)-operational definitions ensure this) Validity-are we testing what we say we are testing in the form of the independent variables (the effect of eating chocolate and not the lighting in the room)?

21. What do you think are some of the strengths of the experimental method?

22. What do you think are some of the weaknesses of the experimental method?

23. Strengths and Weaknesses of Experimental Research
cause-and-effect relationships can be established or implied
Weaknesses:
artificial nature of experiments
ethical and practical issues – can’t manipulate some variables (ex )
The power of the experimental method lies in the ability to draw conclusions about cause-and-effect relationships from an experiment. No other research method has this power.
Experimental research does, however, have limitations. Experiments are often artificial; researchers have to come up with contrived settings so that they have control over the environment.
Some experiments cannot be done because of ethical concerns…for example, you would never want to malnourish infants on purpose to see what the effects are on intelligence.
Others cannot be done because of practical issues…there’s no way we can randomly assign families to live in urban vs. rural areas so we can determine the effects of city vs. country living.

24. Descriptive/ Correlational Methods: Looking for Relationships
Methods used when a researcher cannot manipulate the variables under study
Naturalistic observation-researcher observes subjects in their own environment
Case studies-in depth investigation of a single participant using direct interview, observation, other data (medical/school records)-advantage=used when occurrence of phenomenon is rare disadvantage=____
Surveys- questionnaire (advantage=___ disadvatage=___)
These describe patterns of behavior & associations between variables but cannot imply causation
Only Experimental Method Can correlation (relationship) is not causation
When practical or ethical issues do not allow for variables to be manipulated, researchers rely on descriptive/correlational methods.
Naturalistic observation is when a researcher engages in careful observation of behavior without intervening directly with the subjects…do more men than women run yellow lights?
A case study is an in-depth investigation of an individual subject…profile of a serial killer, etc.
In a survey, researchers use questionnaires or interviews to obtain specific information about subjects’ behavior…the Kinsey Report on “normal” sexual behavior. A modern day example: Cooper (1999) set out to determine how much time people spend on online sexual pursuits…conducted an online questionnaire that was posted for seven weeks that invited internet sex pursuers to participate. A self-selected sample such as this is not representative of the population of the U.S., but it probably was representative of those who visit sexually explicit websites.
Descriptive/Correlational methods allow researchers to discover links or associations between variables, but cannot imply causation.

25. Evaluating Research: Methodological Pitfalls
Distortions in self-report data (subjects verbal accounts of their behavior, such as with surveys, interviews):
Social desirability bias = giving socially approved answers to personal questions
Response set = tendency to respond to questions in a particular way that is unrelated to the content of the question (agreeing with almost everything on a questionnaire)
Hawthorne Effect=changes in subjects behavior due to the attention of researcher (using control and experimental groups help)

26. It broadens what researchers can study
Advantages/Disadvantages of these (naturalistic observation, case studies, surveys) Descriptive/Correlational Methods:
Advantage:
explore questions that can not be examined with experimental methods (poor maternal nutrition and birth defects)
It broadens what researchers can study
Disadvantage: Can’t control events to isolate cause and effect and demonstrate conclusively that one event or variable causes the other

27. Figure 2.10 Comparison of major research methods

28. Table 2.1 Key Data Collection Techniques in Psychology

29. Other Methods You Need to Know (Changes in Memory as people Age)
Longitudinal Study
Cross Sectional Study
Follow a group of people over time (usually years) to see changes or progression in whatever you are studying-ex.how memory changes
What might be the problem here?”__________
Select people from varying age groups (ex. 20s, 30s, 40s, 50s, 60s and 70s) and compare results of specific measures, say memory and its changes over time
What might be the problem here?_______________

30. Statistics and Research: Drawing Conclusions
Statistics – using math to organize, summarize, and interpret numerical data
Descriptive statistics: organizing and summarizing data (measures of central tendency, measures of variability, and the coefficient of correlation)-but can’t use to draw conclusions about___________
Inferential statistics: interpreting data and drawing conclusions (More about this later) about the population or relationship between variables
Statistics - using mathematics to organize, summarize, and interpret numerical data…statistical analyses allow researchers to draw conclusions about their data.
Statistics are a part of everyday modern life…batting averages, economic projections, popularity ratings for TV shows, etc.
There are two basic types of statistics, descriptive and inferential.
Descriptive statistics are used to organize and summarize data to provide some sort of overview.
Inferential statistics use the laws of probability to allow researchers to interpret data and draw conclusions.

31. Descriptive Statistics: Measures of Central Tendency
Measures of central tendency = typical or average score in a distribution (ex. number of words remembered for each subject in our candy exper.)
Mean: average of the scores
Median: score falling in exact center
Mode: most frequently occurring score
Which do you think most accurately depicts the typical say score for a group?
Measures of central tendency are used to describe the typical or average score in a distribution.
The mean is the arithmetic average and is therefore sensitive to extreme scores.
The median is the score that falls exactly in the center of the distribution.
The mode is the most frequently occurring score.
Which one is the most accurate depiction of the typical score? It depends on the data, as depicted on the next slide.

32. Depends on the data Mean is usually most useful measure of central tendency, unless there are outliers =when mean distorted by extreme scores

33. Figure 2.11 Measures of central tendency

34. Descriptive Statistics: Measures of Variability
Range= the difference between the highest and lowest scores
Variability = how much scores vary from each other and from the mean
Standard deviation = how scores vary from the mean (average) score and eachother(ex: how far is your test score from the average score and other students)
High variability in data set = high standard deviation
Low variability in data set = low standard deviation
Variability refers to how much scores in a set of data vary from one another and from the mean…the standard deviation is a numerical index of variability.
If the variability in a data set is high, the standard deviation will be a higher number than if the variability is low.

35. Figure 2.12 Variability and the standard deviation

36. Correlation Coefficients When 2 variables are related to each other, they are correlated
Correlation coefficients show the direction and strength of relationships between variables. They measure correlation (relationship) strength and can range from –1.00 to
It shows How well A predict B
3 Possible Results:
Positive Correlation: Both variables increase or decrease at the same time. A correlation coefficient close to indicates a strong positive correlation. Studying and good grades (say +.92)
Negative Correlations: as the amount of one variable increases, the other decreases (and vice versa). A correlation coefficient close to indicates a strong negative correlation. Cutting class and good grades (say -.93)
No Correlation: Indicates no relationship between the two variables. A correlation coefficient of 0 indicates no correlation. The number of stuffed animals owned and good grades

37. Figure 2.14 Interpreting correlation coefficients

38. Correlation
Scatterplots are used to show correlation / relationship between variables (best way)

39. Correlation

40. Correlation

41. Correlation

42. Moderate correlation =medium level, as we just saw

43. Correlation

44. Correlation

45. Correlation

46. Correlation

47. Correlation

48. Correlation

49. Correlation: Prediction, Not Causation
Higher correlation coefficients =the closer to 1(+ or -)= increased ability to predict one variable based on the other. Prediction is a goal of research.
SAT/ACT scores moderately correlated with first year college GPA
2 variables may be highly correlated, but not causally related
Foot size and vocabulary positively correlated in children
Do larger feet cause larger vocabularies,or vice versa?
The third variable problem (what is it here)?
As a correlation increases in strength (closer to – or + 1), the ability to predict one variable based on knowledge of the other variable increases.
SAT/ACT scores are correlated with first year college GPA at a moderate .40 to this may not be perfect, but it allows admissions committees to predict with some accuracy how well a prospective student will do in college.
Although correlation may allow prediction, it does not infer cause-and-effect.
For example, a strong positive correlation has been shown between foot size in children and vocabulary…as foot size increases, so does vocabulary. Do bigger feet make children learn more words? No. It is a third variable, age, which causes both feet and vocabulary to grow.

50. Larger feet belong to older children. Older children have better vocab
Larger feet belong to older children . Older children have better vocab. than younger, smaller footed, children!!!

51. Correlation Correlation and Causation
Correlation helps predict
Implies cause and effect
Correlation Does Not Equal Causation

52. Figure 2.15 Three possible causal relationships between correlated variables

53. Inferential Statistics: Interpreting Data and Drawing Conclusions
Hypothesis testing: do observed findings support the hypotheses?:
Inferential Statistics (math) used to interpret data and see if differences between experimental group (those who eat mint) and control group (no mint) are due to chance. Used to draw conclusions about the population (Mrs. Merlinos’ students).
Statistical significance = when the probability that observed findings are due to chance is very low (or results not due to chance)
-Are findings real or due to chance?
Very low = less than 5 chances in 100, which is referred to as the .05 level of significance
Researchers use inferential statistics to determine whether their data support their hypotheses…with these statistical methods, they can interpret data and draw conclusions.
Inferential statistics use the laws of probability to allow researchers to determine how likely it is that their findings are real, that is, not due to chance.
Statistical significance is said to exist when the probability that the observed findings are due to chance is very low…many psychologists see “very low” as fewer than 5 chances in 100 that results are not real…the .05 level of significance.

54. Evaluating Research: Methodological Pitfalls
Replication=repeat a study to see if earlier results are duplicated (this is why the operational definitions are important)-only studies that can be repeated are scientific
Sample=collection of subjects selected for observation in an empirical study (AP psych students selected from all schools in Broward County)
Population=larger collection of animals or people from which a sample is drawn (all AP Psych students at Everglades)that researchers want to generalize about
Sampling bias – when a sample is not representative of the population…poll only men, may get a different outcome if the population is both male and female.
Placebo effects – when a participant’s expectations lead them to experience some change even though they receive empty, fake, or ineffectual treatment…cured by a sugar pill.
Distortions in self-report data:
Social desirability bias – a tendency to give socially approved answers to questions about oneself…did you vote?
Response set – a tendency to respond to questions in a particular way (agree with everything, etc.).
Experimenter bias – when a researcher’s expectations or preferences about the outcome of a study influence the results obtained…researchers see what they want to see – errors are usually in favor of the hypothesis…similarly, researchers may unintentionally influence the behavior of their subjects, possibly through body language, smiles, etc. To control for this problem, a double-blind procedure in which neither subjects nor experimenters know which subjects are in the experimental and which are in the control groups is used…a non-directly involved researcher keeps track of everything.

55. Evaluating Research: Methodological Pitfalls
Sampling bias =the sample is not representative of the population from which it is drawn (I only take AP Students 8th period). I CANNOT DRAW CONCLUSIONS HERE!
Placebo (fake treatment-sugar pill)
Placebo effects = participants’ expectations lead them to experience some change (do better on a test), regardless of the Independent Variable because they expect to do better after eating a mint

56. Figure 2.16 The relationship between the population and the sample

57. Evaluating Research: Methodological Pitfalls
Experimenter bias = researchers expectations about outcome of study influences results (can influence the subjects’ responses-I smile more and treat candy eaters better)
the double-blind procedure = neither subject or experimenter know which group is the control or experimental group
single blind procedure

58. APA Ethical Standards for Research
1.Institutional Review Board (reviews and approves or denies proposed animal and human research methods based on ethical issues and study’s value) 2. No harm to humans/ no unnecessary harm to animals 3. informed consent/give your permission/can refuse to be in study 4. Anonymity/privacy-can’t release your name 5. Due to deception (usually part of research), subjects must be Debriefed (explaining to subjects the purpose of the research, and any deception used, as soon as the research ends

59. Experimental Research Flaws
Ethical Flaws=Anything in study that goes against APA Ethical Standards
Design Flaws=variables not controlled for that impact outcome of study
Psychological harm: ex. Led to think you hurt others; extreme humiliation
Physical harm: children deprived food/sleep
Did not get your permission for you to be in study/forced to stay in study
Your name is released to ANYONE
Were not debriefed /or not debriefed right away
Did not get IRB permission
When conditions in the study (anything other than the independent variable) are different for the control and experimental groups.
Example: impact of classical music on problem solving in 10th graders; control group is tested in the morning; experimental group is evening

60. Figure 2.17 Ethics in research

61. Other terms
Illusionary Correlation=when it appears there is a relationship between variables (Friday 13th and bad luck)
Hindsight bias=“I knew that” phenomenon after the fact (you knew friends girlfriend was going to cheat)

62. Your Turn-Group Test Grade:
Work in Groups:
Design an experimental (original) study that will have a:
Hypothesis (No If Then Statements Please)
Independent and dependent variables (be sure to label these)
Control Group and Experimental Group and what they get-also include how many subject each group
Levels of the independent variable
CLEAR Operational definitions for all variables
Who is your population?
How did you get your sample (be specific)?