1. For Qualitative Methods Paper 3
Quality answers
For Qualitative Methods Paper 3

2. Paper 3 Concepts – General Understanding
Theory and practice in qualitative research
 Distinguish between qualitative and quantitative data.
 Explain strengths and limitations of a qualitative approach to research.
 To what extent can findings be generalized from qualitative studies?
 Discuss ethical considerations in qualitative research.
Discuss sampling techniques appropriate to qualitative research (for example, purposive sampling, snowball sampling).
Explain effects of participant expectations and researcher bias in qualitative research.
 Explain the importance of credibility in qualitative research.
Explain the effect of triangulation on the credibility/trustworthiness of qualitative research.
 Explain reflexivity in qualitative research.

3. Terms to know
Ontology – Your belief about the nature of reality. Epistemology – Your belief about how knowledge is created and what is truth. Qualitative data – Language, including body language. Interaction – Between participants and researcher, and between participants themselves. Transferability - See inferential generalization Credibility – Similar to internal validity, trustworthiness. Are the findings believable? Do they truly reflect the participants’ meanings? Triangulation – Of data, researcher, theory, methodology. Reflexivity – Personal (How have I affected the research, and how has it affected me?) and Epistemological (How has the study/method created/limited/affected the knowledge that came out of it?)

4. Terms to know Term Definition Ontology
Your belief about the nature of reality.
Epistemology
Your belief about how knowledge is created and where truth is found.
Qualitative data
Data from language, including body language.
Interaction
Between participants and researcher, and between participants themselves. (How meaning is created).
Credibility
Similar to internal validity, trustworthiness. Are the findings believable? Do they truly reflect the participants’ meanings?
Triangulation
More than one…way of collecting data, researcher, theory, methodology.
Reflexivity – Personal
How have I affected the research, and how has it affected me?
Reflexivity – Epistemological
How has the study/method created/limited/affected the knowledge that came out of it?

5. More terms to know Term Definition Participant expectations
Participants behaving as they think is required. In sensitive interviews this can take the form of a social desirability bias.
Demand characteristics
A type of participant expectations, where participants guess what hey think the researcher wants and try to provide it.
Interviewer/Observer bias
Age, gender, ethnicity, attitude, beliefs of researcher affect the study.
Inductive (thematic) content analysis
The data is analysed thematically to reach a conclusion.
Postmodern analysis
Pauses, shrugs, sighs and body language are all collected as data and analysed.
Grounded theory
Theory that is developed from the data, rather than the other way around. Start with a general idea and an open mind rather than a research question.
Transferability
See inferential generalization

6. Types of generalization
Representational inferential (transferability/external validity), theoretical.

7. More terms to know
Participant expectations – Participants behaving as they think is required. In sensitive interviews this can take the form of a social desirability bias. Interviewer/Observer bias – Age, gender, ethnicity, attitude, beliefs of researcher affects the study. Inductive (thematic) content analysis- The data is analysed thematically to reach a conclusion. Grounded theory – Theory that is developed from the data, rather than the other way around. Start with a general idea and an open mind rather than a research question. Generalization- Representational, inferential (transferability/external validity), theoretical.

8. Suggestions for preparing students for the HL Paper 3
Play a matching game with the terms until they know them well.

9. Paper 3 focus - Interviews, Observations and Case studies
Evaluate the interview/observation/case study Discuss considerations in setting up/conducting the interview/observation Explain how a case study could be used to investigate a problem in… Explain/Discuss/ how researchers use the method/analyse the data Discuss the extent to which findings can be generalized from a single case study OR To what extent can the findings from this case study be generalized?
Note the overlap.

12. Command terms used in Paper 3
Definition
Describe
Give a detailed account of how the researchers in the study could ____________________. (This command term is often used to ask for a description of inductive content analysis).
Explain
Give a detailed account, including reasons, of why the researchers did make or could have made certain considerations before/during/after the study, referring to details of the study in the stimulus material. (This command term is often used for an ethics question).
Evaluate
Make an appraisal by weighing up the strengths and limitations of the method described in this study. Although a discussion of both strengths and limitations is required, it does not have to be evenly balanced to gain high marks.
Discuss
Offer a considered and balanced review of factors relevant for the use of a certain method in the research study in the stimulus material. Opinions or conclusions should be presented clearly and supported by appropriate knowledge of this particular method.
To what extent
Consider the merits or otherwise of the argument that the findings from this qualitative study can be generalized.

13. Planning answers Two ways: Either
1.One at a time (about 3 mins planning each) or
2. All three together (total of up to 10 mins planning).
The second method takes a strong nerve, but the results will usually be better, and will save too much overlap and repetition between answers.

14. Define terms
Non-participant overt observation is…, and in this case it involved….
Strengths of this method in this study were…
Limitations of this method in this study were…
Ethical considerations are……and in this non-participant observation …….., ………., and …………. are particularly relevant, because…..
Reflexivity is………..
In this study, personal reflexivity could have been used to….., because….
Epistemological reflexivity could have been used to….., because…

15. Refer to the stimulus material
When referring to the study in your answers, use the guides as to which line. E.g. in line _______ it says “__________”. This shows ______________
For example, for Q3: Explain how reflexivity could have been used in this qualitative study.

16. A Qualitative Study of Early Family Histories and Transitions of Homeless Youth [The stimulus material below is based on a research article on semi-structured interviews with young homeless people in the USA].
1.This study examined the early family history of 40 homeless young people aged between 19 and 21, using the method of semi-structured interviews. 16 males and 24 females were interviewed. Young people were interviewed in four Midwestern states (Missouri, Iowa, Nebraska, and Kansas, and the majority (n=27) were European American. Interviews were conducted in homeless shelter interview rooms, quiet corners of restaurants and libraries. 2.Study procedures were explained and informed consent was obtained from all interviewees. All interviews were audio-taped and lasted for 1 to 1.5 hours. Interviewees were asked a series of open-ended questions focused on maltreatment, parents’ substance abuse, criminal activity and all prior living situations up to the time of their interview.

17. 3.Each interview was transcribed verbatim and to preserve confidentiality all names were changed. Interviewees were paid $25 for the interview. Inductive analysis was carried out on the interview transcripts and two major themes emerged: (a) family disorganization and (b) child transitions. After these two broad themes emerged, the process of grouping excerpts according to theme began. 4.Multiple forms of child maltreatment, family alcoholism, drug use and criminal activity characterized early family histories of 37 out of the 40 young people interviewed. Leaving home because of running away or being removed by child protective services often resulted in multiple transitions, which regularly included moving from foster care homes to a group home, back to their parents, and then again returning to the streets. Some moved so many times that they could not recall the exact number of moves.

18. Questions (10 marks each)
5.Understanding the early life histories of homeless youth is crucial because it helps to explain how they arrived at their current situation. Interventions that provide them with basic life skills, education and employment training, and programmes to improve their self-esteem and self-worth may place them in a better position for making a successful transition to young adulthood.
[Adapted from Tyler, K.A. (October 2006). A Qualitative Study of Early Family Histories and Transitions of Homeless Youth, Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 21, (10) ]
Questions (10 marks each)
Evaluate the use of semi-structured interviews in this study.
Discuss ethical considerations relevant to this study.
Explain how reflexivity could have been used in this qualitative study.

19. Use the command terms correctly
1. Evaluate the use of semi-structured interviews in this study.
Evaluate = make an appraisal by weighing up the strengths and limitations.
Consider semi-structured interview technique in this study –
What are semi-structured interviews?
What are the strengths of using this method in this study?
What are the problems with using this method in this study?

20. Use the command terms correctly
2. Discuss ethical considerations relevant to this study.
Discuss = Offer a considered and balanced review that includes a range of arguments, factors or hypotheses. Opinions or conclusions should be presented clearly and supported by appropriate evidence.
Consider ethical considerations relevant to this study –
What are ethical considerations?
Identify and discuss at least two (in depth) or more (in less depth) ethical considerations relevant to this study.
(Note: It makes no difference what ethical considerations students choose. What matters is that they describe and discuss them and even more importantly that they can extract examples from the stimulus of how they were upheld, how they could be upheld or how they were violated).

21. Use the command terms correctly
3. Explain how reflexivity could have been used in this qualitative study.
Explain = give a detailed account including reasons and causes.
Consider how reflexivity could have been used in this study –
What is reflexivity (personal and epistemological)?
Identify and explain areas where reflexivity could have been used in this study.

22. Some Dos and Don’ts Do
Refer to and use the stimulus material throughout
Meet the demands of the command term
Plan your answers carefully
Practise using old Paper 3 examples
Answer every question
Be specific
Don’t
Use terms relevant for quantitative research: experiment, random sampling, objectivity, scientific etc.
Use too much overlapping material in your answers.
Forget to mention ethical considerations as well as methodological ones if a question asks you to explain considerations to be taken before, during and after the research.

23. Paper 3 markbands

24. Question/Discussion
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Key Term/Researcher

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