1. Qualitative Research Methodology
Theory and Practice
Interviews
Observations
Case Studies

2. Learning Outcomes: Theory and Practice
Distinguish between qualitative and quantitative data
Explain strengths and limitations of a qualitative approach to research
Discuss to what extend findings can be generalized from qualitative studies
Discuss ethical considerations in qualitative research
Discuss sampling techniques appropriate to qualitative research, for example:
Purposive sampling
Snowball sampling
Quota sampling
Explain effects of participant expectations and researcher bias in qualitative research
Explain the importance of credibility in qualitative research
Explain the effect of triangulation on the creditability/trustworthiness of qualitative research
Explain reflexivity in qualitative research

3. Learning Outcomes: Interviews
Evaluate semi-structured, focus group and narrative interviews
Discuss considerations involved before, during, and after an interview, for example:
Sampling method
Data recording
Transcription
Ethics
Debriefing
Explain how researchers use inductive content analysis (thematic analysis) on interview transcripts

4. Learning Outcomes: Observations
Evaluate participant, non-participant, naturalistic, over and covert observations
Discuss considerations involved in setting up and carrying out an observation, for example:
Audience effect
Data recording
Ethics
Debriefing
Discuss how researchers analyze data obtained in observational research

5. Learning Outcomes: Case Studies
Evaluate the use of case studies in research
Explain how a case study could be used to investigate a problem in an organization or group (football team, school, or family)
Discuss the extent to which findings can be generalized from a single case study

6. General Approaches to Research
Quantitative vs Qualitative
Each method serves a different purpose and is selected depending on what we want to know about behavior; researchers frequently combine both methods

7. Examples of Quantitative Research
Experiments
Surveys
Examples of Qualitative Research
Interviews
Observations
Case Studies

8. Quantitative Methods Data in quantitative research: Numbers
Operational definition of research and “closed” data in the form of numbers
Analysis of data relatively easy: statistical tests
Data from many participants and inferential statistics generalization of findings to populations

9. Qualitative Methods Data in qualitative research: text
Naturally occurring and rich data (open for interpretation)
Analysis of data often difficult and time consuming
Data from few participants  difficult to generalize

10. Emic vs Etic
A qualitative method is an emic approach to understanding behavior which delve into the unique perspective of individuals and/or groups within the culture studied (cultural specific)
This sometimes challenges the assumed etics (universal behaviors) which researchers often have at the beginning of research study. Assumes that the underlying psychology mechanisms are subjectively experienced and are very similar cross cultural.

11. Strengths of Qualitative Research
Generates rich data (in depth and subjective)
Use for investigating complex and sensitive issues
People are studied in real-life settings so there is more ecological validity
Approach generates new ideas and theories to deal with real-life problems
Researcher and participant are often interacting with each other for longer periods of time

12. Limitations of Qualitative Research
Large amounts of data to analyze
Time consuming, takes place over a prolonged period
It is usually difficult to generalize results to other settings
Interpretation of data may be subjective but reflexivity and creditability checks can reduce bias
Participant expectations and researcher bias may influence the research process but reflexivity and creditability checks can reduce bias

13. Generalizing Findings From Qualitative Studies
Most studies have few participants
Sampling is based on selection criteria and not representativeness
Goal of data analysis is to understand the subjective experience of participants in the study

14. Generalizing Findings From Qualitative Studies
Representational Generalization
Findings from a study can be applied to populations outside of the study
If findings from similar research studies corroborate findings, some degree of generalization may be possible
Example: interview data from a study with homeless people in city X and city Z have generated similar findings

15. Inferential Generalization
Generalizing Findings From Qualitative Studies
Inferential Generalization
Findings from a study can be applied to settings outside the study
The findings can be “transferred” to similar settings (transferability)
Example: Results from a pilot study on victims of domestic violence towards women to test the effectiveness of a service to help them cope and develop resilience can be transferred to similar settings like shelters for abused women.

16. Theoretical Generalization
Generalizing Findings From Qualitative Studies
Theoretical Generalization
Theoretical concepts developed in the study can be used to develop further theory
Example: Developing resilience in homeless teens could be effectively applied in policies to establish help centers for people.

17. Reliability and Validity
Generalizing Findings From Qualitative Studies
Reliability and Validity
Reliable: How much the same results can be repeated with other studies
Validity: how accurate or correct the result is

18. Ethical Considerations in Qualitative Research
Informed consent
Participants must understand what the study will involve and must agree to participation
Protect participants from harm
Consider whether the research could harm
Questions must be clear and direct
Follow up to ensure participant well-being
Anonymity and confidentiality
Full anonymity is the rule
Research material should be destroyed and transcript anonymous

19. Ethical Considerations in Qualitative Research
Potential exploitation of participants
Researcher could use reflexivity and consult with other researchers when researching people who are not able to protect themselves
Invasion of privacy
Personal Conduct
Close personal relationship is helpful for data collecting, but the relationship will have to end and may have psychological consequences
Presentation of Data
Once data has been collated, edited, interpreted and presented

20. Sampling in Quantitative and Qualitative Research
Representative Sampling
Using a sample that represents a target population
Only kind of sampling that allows for the generalization of study results (unless triangulation is used)

21. Nonrepresentative Sampling
Sampling in Quantitative and Qualitative Research
Nonrepresentative Sampling
Opportunity sampling- used by most experiments
Purposive sampling- selecting a sample for a particular purpose; participants have particular characteristics (age, gender etc) based on a sample frame

22. Types of Purposive Samples
Focus Groups
A group of experts on a topic or people selected because of common experiences
Snowball Sampling
Interviewing an expert who then suggests the next expert participant and so on (Rosenthal, 1993)
Convenience Sampling (Volunteer)
Participants are chosen based on availability.

23. Effects of Participant Expectations and Researcher Bias
Participant expectations can be described as participant factors that influence the outcome of the research
Participants can behave in ways they feel is expected of them
Participants may conform
Participants ideas of the research can lead them to behave in ways that are not natural in order to please the researcher

24. Effects of Participant Expectations and Researcher Bias
Researcher bias can be described as researcher factors that could potentially bias the research process.
Researcher’s values and beliefs may bias the process
Researcher needs to be aware of subjectivity in process and apply reflexivity
Researcher may not give enough attention to social process and participant expectations
Researcher could influence outcome by nodding or smiling

25. Importance of Credibility in Qualitative Research
Increasing Credibility
Creditability is based on an evaluation of whether or not the research findings represent a credible interpretation of the data drawn
This means that the investigation must present a true picture of what is being studied
The focus is on whether or not the study measures what it actually intends

26. Importance of Credibility in Qualitative Research
Using reflexivity
Researcher explains how individual bias could influence the research process and how this has been prevented
Decisions trail
Documenting every decision taken in the collection, analysis, and interpretation of data
Performing triangulation (appropriate for qualitative research)
Use of alternative data collection methods, other use of researchers, and alternative methods of analysis

27. Increasing the Quality of Studies
Importance of Credibility in Qualitative Research
Increasing the Quality of Studies
Be sure the categories generated in the interpretation are a good fit with the data
Clearly describe the life circumstances of the sample
Check interpretations against those of others
Explore whether the results are transferable to other people and contexts

28. Triangulation
The use of multiple (many) procedure or sources to collet data from different angles or perspectives
Qualitative researchers rarely look for one truth. They look for one interpretation of data.

29. Types of Triangulation (for data gathered with qualitative methods)
Method triangulation
Use of different methods in the same study (observation and interview)
Data triangulation
Comparison of data from multiple sources (participants, observations, days, etc)
Researcher triangulation
Use of more than one researcher to collect and analyze data
Theory triangulation
Use of several competing theories to analyze the data

30. The Effect of Triangulation on the Credibility/Trustworthiness of Qualitative Research
Gives the results of qualitative research more depth
Bias is reduced
Use of multiple sources increases the credibility of data gathered with qualitative methods

31. Reflexivity in Qualitative Research
Personal reflexivity means that researchers reflect on the way their values, experiences and social identities influence the study
Epistemological reflexivity means that researchers have considered their assumptions about the nature of the world and the nature of knowledge that relates to a study

32. Reflexivity in Qualitative Research
Reflexivity refers to the careful attention the researcher pays to their own role in the research
How did I come to the conclusions I came to?
Why did I decided to investigate this topic?
What has been muted, repressed or unheard?