1. Psychological Disorders Schizophrenia
CHAPTER 14
Psychological Disorders
Schizophrenia

2. Schizophrenia Schizophrenia is a disabling disorder characterized by
perceptual disturbances
Emotional disturbances
intellectual deficits
loss of contact with reality
Often an inability to function in life.
Incidence rate:
estimated that 3 million Americans will develop schizophrenia during their lifetime.
Approximately 2% of population
100,000 patients take up 20% of psychiatric beds in the U.S.
Many more receive outpatient care.

3. Diagnosing Schizophrenia
Must exhibit some combination of several symptoms:
Hallucinations :
internally generated perceptual experiences
E.g., voices telling the person what to do.
Delusion :
false, unfounded beliefs,
such as that one is a messenger from God.
Paranoia: characterized by delusions of persecution.
Disordered thought:
Lack of logic in thought processes
Word salad or fleeting thoughts
Inappropriate emotions or lack of emotion
Social withdrawal.

4. Positive vs. negative symptoms
Positive symptoms: Characterized by the the presence or exaggeration of behaviors
Include
delusions
hallucinations
thought disorder
bizarre behavior
Negative symptoms: Characterized by the absence or insufficiency of normal behaviors
include
lack of affect (emotion)
inability to experience pleasure
lack of motivation
poverty of speech
impaired attention.

5. etiology Schizophrenia is a familial disorder:
Incidence of schizophrenia higher among the relatives of schizophrenics than in general population.
Identical twins of schizophrenics are three times as likely to be schizophrenic as the fraternal twins of schizophrenics.
The heritability for schizophrenia has been estimated at between .60 and .90.
This means that 10-40% of the variability is due to environmental factors.

6. Causes of Schizophrenia
Scientistss looking for a genetic cause:
Suggest may be genetic due to relatively constant rate of disorder
Prevalence quite steady world wide
The genes primarily concerned with
neuronal migration,
neuroreceptor development or sensitivity
neurotransmitter activity.
teasing out the genes’ relationships to behavioral symptoms.
Notice these genes involve developmental aspects of the brain, suggesting schizophrenia is a developmental disorder.

7. Causes of Schizophrenia
Cannot rule out effects of the environment
Recent studies suggest is an interaction between environment and genetic predisposition
Vulnerability model:
Some threshold of causal forces exceeded = illness to occur.
Environmental challenges combine with person’s genetic vulnerability to exceed that threshold.
Genes determine vulnerability, not actual disease
Interaction of heredity and environment

8. History of treatment Early 20th century:
Little could be done to treat psychotic patients until mid-1950s
In mid 1950’s: variety of antipsychotic medications arrived on the scene.
Most important was chlorpromazine
Anitpsychotics not originally designed to treat schizophrenia
Often is case in medicine
Most often in mental health
Too little understanding of disease to develop specific meds
Tried horse tranquilizers, brain surgeries, other wild treatments

9. History of treatment NOT clear why chlorpromazine worked,
Chlorpromazine or Thorazine:
Tried with wide variety of mental illnesses
Used it because it calmed surgical patients (and horses)
Found it reduced schizophrenia symptoms
NOT clear why chlorpromazine worked,
Traditional tranquilizers have little or no usefulness in treating schizophrenia.
Only Thorazine seemed to calm these patients

10. Amphetamine hypothesis
Overdose causes psychotic behavior indistinguishable from schizophrenia,
Includes symptoms such as hallucinations and paranoid delusions.
Researchers determined: Amphetamine produces these symptoms by increasing dopaminergic activity
Eventually led to the dopamine hypothesis
Dopamine Hypothesis
schizophrenia involves excessive dopamine activity in the brain.
blockade of type D2 dopamine receptors is essential for a drug to have an antipsychotic effect,
effectiveness directly related to drug’s D2 receptor blocking potency.

11. Treatment Side Effects
Unfortunately, severe side effects from treatment
Tardive Dyskinesia
Prolonged use of antidopamine drugs often produces
Includes permanent tremors and involuntary movements caused by blocking of dopamine receptors in the basal ganglia.
Pill rolling, grimacing, etc.
The effect appears to be due to a compensatory increase in the sensitivity of D2 receptors in the basal ganglia.

12. Newer drugs Atypical antipsychotics How are they different?
Risperidal; Olazapine, etc.
Introduced in early 1990s
Are referred to as atypical because work slightly differently than original D2 antagonists.
How are they different?
Target more than just D2 receptors
Produce motor problems only at much higher doses
Later onset of motor problems
Major side effects, particularly on white blood cells.
Some suggest atypical antipsychotics are 15-25% more effective than conventional antipsychotics; data NOT support this.
Although target receptors other than the D2, those that lack at least a modest effect at D2 receptors are therapeutically ineffective.

13. Is it just the DA system? Phencyclidine (PCP): Glutamate theory:
elicits some of the symptoms of schizophrenia
mimics schizophrenia better than amphetamine does.
PCP inhibits the NMDA glutamate receptor
Suggests that reduced glutamate might be a factor in schizophrenia.
Glutamate theory:
Reduced glutamate activity involved in schizophrenia
Strong theoretical and therapeutic promise with this theory.
The glutamate system influences number of dopamine receptors.
Atypical antipsychotics also affect the serotonin system, which helps regulate the dopamine system.

14. Brain changes in Schizophrenia
Several changes in brain of individuals with Schizophrenia
Reduced cortical gray matter
Reduced limbic area volume
Enlarged fissures and sulci
Enlarged ventricles in the brains of schizophrenics.
Deficits are often accompanied by enlarged ventricles.
Ventricular enlargement serves as a marker or indicator of the tissue deficiency
Ventricles expand to take up space normally occupied by brain cells
Suggests actual neuronal loss
Degree of ventricular enlargement correlated with decrease in IQ. .

15. Brain changes in Schizophrenia
Are deficits due to loss of specific area or coordination of several areas?
Recent research: suggest schizophrenia due to disordered connections between parts of the brain
Not due to localized malfunction.
This consistent with findings of reduced white matter in the brains of schizophrenics.
Remember: White matter= axons
Reduction not due to loss of neurons themselves, but loss of connections between neurons
Do connections die, resulting in symptoms?
Do symptoms produce loss of neurons?

16. Ventricle size in normals and schizophrenics
Figure Ventricle size in normals and schizophrenics
(a) Ventricle-to-brain ratios (VBR; ventricular area divided by brain area, multiplied by 100) of normal controls and chronic schizophrenics. Dotted horizontal lines indicate group means. (b) Magnetic resonance imaging
scans of identical twins, one normal and one schizophrenic.
Ventricle size in normals and schizophrenics
Ventricle-to-brain ratios (VBR; ventricular area divided by brain area, multiplied by 100) of normal controls and chronic schizophrenics. Dotted horizontal lines indicate group means.
Magnetic resonance imaging scans of identical twins, one normal and one schizophrenic.

17. Changes in cognitive function
Many schizophrenics perform poorly on the Wisconsin Card Sorting Task
Wisconsin Card sorting Task
Sort cards by color, shape, symbol
Have subject switch to new type of sorting across several trials
Requires the individual to switch from one card sorting strategy to another.
Many schizophrenics perform poorly on the test, persisting with the previous sorting strategy.

18. Changes in cognitive function
Poor performance on Wisconsin Sorting Task suggests poor prefrontal activity
Normal individuals: increased activation in the prefrontal area during the test
Schizophrenics do not.
This hypofrontality appears to involves DA deficiency
Administering amphetamine to schizophrenics increases blood flow in the prefrontal cortex
Amphetamine also improves performance on the Wisconsin Card Sorting Task.
Question is why DA decreases!

19. Blood flow in normal and schizophrenic brains during card sorting test
Figure Blood flow in normal and schizophrenic brains during card sorting test
(a) The upper images are of the left and right hemispheres of a normal brain; the schizophrenic brain is below. Red and yellow represent greatest activation. Note especially the activity in the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex, whose location is identified in (b).
Blood flow in normal and schizophrenic brains during card sorting test
(a) The upper images are of the left and right hemispheres of a normal brain; the schizophrenic brain is below. Red and yellow represent greatest activation.
(b) Note Activity in the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex, whose location is identified figure to right, appears most compromised.

20. Figure 14.11

21. Why the damage?
Some of the brain defects in schizophrenia apparently stem from problems during pregnancy or at the time of birth.
Prenatal problems include
Physical complications of mother and fetus
Emotional stresses on the mother.
Birth and pregnancy complications associated with
Brain deficits
Enlarged ventricles later in life.

22. Winter effect?
More schizophrenics are born during the winter and spring than during any other time of the year.
Infants born between January and May
Experienced second trimester of prenatal development in the fall or early winter:
High incidence of infectious diseases.
Strong evidence that the mother’s exposure to viral infections during the 4th-6th months of pregnancy increases risk of schizophrenia.
Prenatal starvation is another pathway to schizophrenia.
Poor maternal diet
Issues with metabolizing across placenta