1. James Joule and the mechanical equivalent of heat
Joule knew a mass above the ground had potential energy. He dropped an object on a cord, turning a paddle in water monitored by a very accurate thermometer.
His conclusion was to connect energy conservation (potential and kinetic) to heat as a third form observed.

2. Specific heat
A specific heat value reveals how much temperature will change when a given amount of a substance absorbs a given amount of heat.
Water is a “benchmark” as one ml of water will absorb 1 cal of heat to raise its temperature by 1oC.
4.2 J to raise 1g of water by 1 degree C. Compare to work: take a 1 kg mass and raise by 10 m (about 3 stories), W = 1kg*9.8*10m ~ 100 J. If put this amount of energy into heat, how much does it raise the temp of the 1kg mass? It takes 4200 J to raise 1 kg by 1 degree C, so 100 J/(4200 J/deg C) = deg C. Not much! This means that huge amounts of heat are required to change temperature and also that using heat to do work can mean a lot of work!

3. Symbols, signs, and definitions for heat and work
Hot coffee is poured into a room-temperature mug and over time, they reach thermal equilibrium.
What is the sign of Q for the coffee?
Sign of Q for mug?

4. Signs of heat and work on a system
Is the work W, the heat Q, and the change in thermal energy DEth, positive (+), negative (-) or zero (0) for the following situations?
Does the temperature increase (+), decrease (-), or stay the same (0)
W Q DEth DT
You hit a nail with a hammer
You hold a nail over a Bunsen burner
You compress the air in a bicycle pump by pushing down on the handle very rapidly
You turn on a flame under a cylinder of gas, and the gas undergoes an isothermal expansion
A flame turns liquid water into steam
High pressure steam spins a turbine
Steam contacts a cold surface and condenses

5. Does the path of the PV change matter?
The start, the finish, and the shape of the curve are all significant.

6. Compressed air
A compressed air cartridge at a starting pressure of p1 = 50 atm and starting volume V1 = 5 cm3 is put into an empty, sealed balloon. It pops and causes the balloon to expand to 10 times the volume of the cartridge, V2.
Assuming the air undergoes an isothermal expansion and behaves like an ideal gas, draw the pV diagram of this process.
What is the final pressure of the balloon p2?
Two other ways different than the first method 1) of inflating the balloon to the same final volume are 2) a constant pressure p1 = 50 atm inflates the balloon from V1 to V2 or 3) a constant pressure p2 (calculated above) inflates the balloon from V1 to V2. Draw pV diagrams and rank the work done on the expanding air for the three cases of expansion. E.g. W1>W2>W3

7. Study of thermodynamic processes
The cyclic process shown proceeds counterclockwise from a in the pV diagram to b and back and the total work is W = 500J.
Why is the work positive?
Find the change in thermal energy and the heat added during this process

8. Thermodynamic process definitions
Adiabatic
Isochoric
Isobaric
Isothermal

9. The processes on a PV diagram

10. Adiabatic changes
In an adiabatic process, no heat is transferred from system and surroundings.
Adiabatic process a – b:
Q = 0, DEth = W

11. Cyclic process
A cyclic thermodynamic process occurs as shown, where path c-b is isothermal. Draw isotherms to determine temperatures of states a, b, c. Predict the Q, W and DEth for each process: What changes if c-b is adiabatic? Q W
DEth
a-c
c-b
b-a
Whole cycle

12. Adiabatic and isothermal processes
Air (an diatomic gas with g = 1.4 ) at Pi = 1 atm and Vi = 1m3 doubles its volume A) isothermally and B) adiabatically
Draw a PV diagram for both processes
What is the final pressure for process A and B?
Compute W, DEth and Q for each process.

13. Measuring heat capacities
Heat capacities may be measured at constant volume in a fairly complex process using a bomb calorimeter.
Heat capacities may be measured at constant pressure using equipment as simple as a coffee cup.

14. Relating heat capacities at constant volume and pressure
Q = DEth
Q = DEth - W

15. Heat capacities tabulated for selected gasses

16. Specific heat values

17. Q17.3.5
You put 1 kg of the following materials on a bunsen burner. Which one’s temperature rises the least?
A. Aluminum, c = 910 J/kg K
B. Berillium, c = 1970 J/kg K
C. Copper, c = 390 J/kg K
D. Water, c = 4190 J/kg K

18. A17.3.5
You put 1 kg of the following materials on a bunsen burner. Which one’s temperature rises the least?
A. Aluminum, c = 910 J/kg K
B. Berillium, c = 1970 J/kg K
C. Copper, c = 390 J/kg K
D. Water, c = 4190 J/kg K

19. Water in a teapot
A 500W heater dumps all its energy into heating 1kg of water in a teapot. How long does it take to heat the water to boiling if the water started out at room temperature?
How many moles of water is this?
cwater = 4190 J/kg K
Mwater = kg/mol

20. Phase changes and temperature behavior
A solid will absorb heat according to its heat capacity, becoming a hotter solid.
At the melting point, a solid will absorb its heat of fusion and become a liquid. An equilibrium mixture of a substance in both its liquid and solid phases will have a constant temperature.
A cold liquid will absorb heat according to its heat capacity to become a hotter liquid.
At the boiling point, a liquid will absorb its heat of vaporization and become a gas. An equilibrium mixture of liquid and gas will have a constant temperature.
A cold gas can absorb heat according to its heat capacity and become a hotter gas.

21. Q17.4
You wish to increase the temperature of a 1.00-kg block of a certain solid substance from 20°C to 25°C. (The block remains solid as its temperature increases.) To calculate the amount of heat required to do this, you need to know
A. the specific heat of the substance.
B. the molar heat capacity of the substance.
C. the heat of fusion of the substance.
D. the thermal conductivity of the substance.
E. more than one of the above

22. A17.4
You wish to increase the temperature of a 1.00-kg block of a certain solid substance from 20°C to 25°C. (The block remains solid as its temperature increases.) To calculate the amount of heat required to do this, you need to know
A. the specific heat of the substance.
B. the molar heat capacity of the substance.
C. the heat of fusion of the substance.
D. the thermal conductivity of the substance.
E. more than one of the above

23. Hot pot
A heavy copper pot of mass 2 kg is at temperature of 150C. You pour 0.1 kg of water at 25C into the pot then quickly close the lid so no steam can escape. Find the final temperature of the pot and its contents and determine the phase (liquid or gas) of the water. Assume no heat is lost to the surroundings.
cwater = 4190 J/kg K, ccopper = 390 J/kg K
Lwater = 2256 x 103 J/kg

24. Condensing steam
1671 cm3 of steam condenses to form 1 gram of water (1 cm3) when held at a constant pressure of 1 atm (1.013 x 105 Pa). The heat of vaporization at this pressure is Lv = x 106 J/kg.
Draw the pV diagram for this process
What is the work done by the water when it condenses?
What is its change in thermal energy?

25. Why, and how well, do materials transfer heat?
Conduction: heat transfer within a body or between two bodies in contact.
Convection: heat transfer through movement of mass from one place to another
Radiation: heat transfer by electromagnetic radiation

26. Convection of heat
Heating by moving large amounts of hot fluid, usually water or air.
Figure at right illustrates heat moving by convection.

27. Conduction of heat I
You bring a cooler to the beach to keep some tasty beverages cold. The cooler has a total wall area of 0.8 m2 and a wall thickness of 2.0 cm. It is filled with ice, water and your tasty beverage at 0C. What is the rate of heat flow into the cooler if the outside wall is at 30C?
How much ice melts in 8 hours? Assume the same rate of heat flow calculated above.