1. CHAPTER 7 : MEMORY
The ability to store information in memory and retrieve it when needed depends upon a variety of factors.

2. MEMORY

3. MEMORY

4. MEMORY
Memory - the process by which we recollect prior experiences and information and skills learned in the past.
There are three different kinds of memory: events, general knowledge, and skills.
We all retain information in our memories that we occasionally fail to recall.
Memory processes used to absorb and store information can affect our ability to retrieve it.

5. MEMORY What letters do not appear on the telephone keypad? (Q and Z)
How many sides do most pencils have?
(six)
In what hand does the Statue of Liberty carry the torch?
(right)

6. What are the three kinds of memory?
Episodic memory – Memory of a specific event.
The event took place in the person’s presence and the person experienced the event.
(the memory of last night’s dinner or the memory of your last quiz)
Flashbulb memories – events that are so important it seems as if a flash goes off and we photograph the scene in every detail.

7. What are the three kinds of memory?
Semantic Memory – your memory of facts, words, concepts, and most of what you would say you know.
Semantic – means having to do with meaning and language.
What you learn in school, but do not remember when you learn it. (George Washington)
Both episodic and semantic are examples of explicit memory. (clear/clearly stated, specific information

8. What are the three kinds of memory?
Implicit Memory – implied, or not clearly stated. Includes practiced skills and learned habits.
Skills learned implicitly include: Riding a bike, skipping, jumping rope, typing, and playing a musical instrument.
Once such a skill is learned it usually stays with you for many years even for life.

9. Three major processes of memory-in order to be remembered, sensory input must go through the three basic processes of memory: encoding, storage, and retrieval
Encoding
Is the first process of remembering.
Translating sensory information into a form in which it can be used.
Visual coding enables information to be stored as pictures
Acoustic coding enables information to stored as sounds.
Semantic coding enables information to be stored as meanings.

10. Example
To see what kind of code you use, look at this string for 30 seconds and memorize as much of it as you can.
O T T F F S S E N T
Now what type of code – visual, acoustic, or semantic.

11. Three major processes of memory - in order to be remembered, sensory input must go through the three basic processes of memory: encoding, storage, and retrieval
2. Storage
the maintenance of encoding information over time
the second process of remembering
Achieved through two types of rehearsal: maintenance rehearsal and elaborative rehearsal
Maintenance rehearsal uses repetition to aid storage
Elaborative rehearsal aids storage by fitting new information into a organizational system
Elaborative rehearsal is generally more secure than maintenance rehearsal

12. Three major processes of memory - in order to be remembered, sensory input must go through the three basic processes of memory: encoding, storage, and retrieval
Activity
Quickly write down on a sheet of paper the 12 months of the year. This will be timed.
Now, quickly write down on another sheet of paper the 12 months of the year in alphabetical order. This will again be timed.
Time this exercise, and when all students have finished, tell them how long it took for the class to complete it. Ask students which type of order they listed the months (chronological order) Have students put away this sheet of paper and take out another one. Tell them to quickly write down the 12 months in alphabetical order, discuss why this exercise took much longer to complete

13. locating stored information and returning it to conscious thought
Three major processes of memory - in order to be remembered, sensory input must go through the three basic processes of memory: encoding, storage, and retrieval
3. Retrieval
locating stored information and returning it to conscious thought
the third and final process of remembering
A memory is context-dependent if it can be retrieved more readily when the person is in a similar situation or environment as when the information was learned
A memory is state-dependent if it can be retrieved more readily when the person is in a similar emotional state as when the information was learned
(Tip-of-the-tongue phenomenon)

14. THREE STAGES OF MEMORY
1. SENSORY MEMORY – is the first stage if information storage. Consists of the immediate, initial recording of data that enters through our senses.
If we want to remember what we perceive, we have to do something with the information very quickly.
Iconic memory – are accurate photographic images. These memories are extremely brief, just a fraction of a second. Eidetic imagery – is a rare ability to remember visual stimuli for long periods of time; photographic memory.
Echoic memory - mental traces of sound. This type of memory lasts longer than Iconic. Acoustic codes are easier to remember than visual codes, meaning it is easier to remember a spoken list of letters than to remember a mental picture of the letters.

15. THREE STAGES OF MEMORY
2. Short Term Memory (STM)– If you pay attention to sensory memory you can transfer that information into STM. Also called working memory. Information will remain here after the sensory memory trace has faded away.
Whatever you think about is in your STM. (trying to solve a math problem, name of someone new, to remember a phone number)
STM fades after a few seconds.
Primary and Recency Effect – our memory of the first and last items, in a series of items, tend to be sharper then the middle items.
Chunking – the organization of items into familiar or manageable units. (OTTFFSSENT)
Interference – occurs when new information appears in short term memory and takes the place of what was already there. (Lloyd/Peterson experiment)

16. THREE STAGES OF MEMORY

17. THREE STAGES OF MEMORY
How many items in the picture were you able to identify? Could you describe them in detail?
What exactly did you think about as you tried to remember? For instance, did you ask yourself questions?
Did you “remember” any objects or people that were not in the picture? How do you think this happened?

18. ABCCBSAAAMTVUSANBCCNN
MEMORY
ABCCBSAAAMTVUSANBCCNN
ABC CBS AAA MTV USA NBC CNN

19. MEMORY ROSE PAPER ROSE BIRD TULIP PEN CAT ORANGE DAISY PENCIL
DOG
BIRD
RED
YELLOW
ORANGE
ROSE BIRD
CAT ORANGE
RED PENCIL
PAPER
TULIP
DOG
YELLOW
PEN
DAISY

20. Word List BIRD CAT DAISY DOG ORANGE PAPER PEN PENCIL RED ROSE TULIP
YELLOW

21. Word List Candle Store Chair Phone Bike Ball Outrageous Cat Book Milk
Clock
Shoe
Gym
Plant
Basket

22. Word List Cow Rooster Bird Skunk Rabbit Mouse Horse Rat Chicken Dog
Fish
Cat
Pig
Buffalo
Tiger
Fox
Lion

23. Word List Car Flower Desk Key Video Carpet Magnet Radio Ice Peanut
Bench
Clock
Briefcase
Envelope
Nail

24. Directions: Write the words you can recall from the list you just studied. (There were 15 words total.)
Car
Flower
Desk
Key
Video
Carpet
Magnet
Radio
Ice
Peanut
Bench
Clock
Briefcase
Envelope
Nail

25. Word List Car Flower Desk Key Video Carpet Magnet Radio Ice Peanut
Bench
Clock
Briefcase
Envelope
Nail

26. Directions: Write the words from the list below that you recognize from the list you just studied. (There were 15 words total)
Box Flower
Car Sun
Ship Nail
Motor Television
Radio Book
Basket Key
Magnet Soda
Carpet Video
Crayon Flower
Desk Briefcase
Peanut Ice
Bench Water
Banana Clock
Bolt Cheerio
Envelope Stamp

27. Thinking and Language Thinking is the mental activity that is involved in the understanding, processing, and communicating of information. Thinking is made possible through units of thought that include symbols, concepts, and prototypes.
Symbols
A symbol is an object or an act that stands for something else.
Letters and words are symbols.
Mental images are symbols.
Symbols help us think about things that are not present.
Concepts
A concept is a mental structure used to categorize objects, people, or events that share similar characteristics.
People organize concepts into hierarchies.
People learn concepts through experience.

28. Thinking and Language Prototypes
A prototype is an example of a concept that best exemplifies the characteristics of that concept.
Prototypes help us categorize the world and process information about it.
Without prototypes, people might have to examine unfamiliar elements as if they were totally new.

29. Three Kinds of Thinking
Convergent
Convergent thinking is thought limited to facts.
We use convergent thinking to find one solution for a problem or task.
Developing rules and following them is one example of convergent thinking.
Convergent thinking is not particularly creative.
Divergent
Divergent thinking allows the mind to associate more freely to various elements of a problem.
Divergent thinking is at the base of creativity.
Divergent thinking typically results in multiple solutions.

30. Three Kinds of Thinking
Metacognition
Metacognition consists of planning, evaluating, and monitoring mental activities.
It is thinking about thinking.
It has two different aspects: metacognitive knowledge and metacognitive experiences.

31. Problem Solving (Solving problems can be done in logical and planned ways to achieve the best results).
Algorithms
An algorithm is a specific procedure that, when used properly and in the right circumstances, will always lead to the solution of a problem.
Mathematical formulas are examples of algorithms.
One kind of complex algorithm is a systematic search.
Heuristics
Algorithms are guaranteed to work, but they are not always practical.
This is why people use heuristics for many types of problems.
Heuristics are rules of thumb that often, but not always, help us solve problems.
They are shortcuts that are faster than algorithms, but they are not always reliable

32. Problem-Solving Methods
Trial and Error
Somewhat similar to systematic searching, but more haphazard and less reliable.
Difference Reduction
Difference reduction is a problem-solving method in which we identify our goal, where we are in relation to it, and the direction we must go to move closer to it.
The aim is to reduce the difference between a present situation in which a problem is unsolved to a desired situation in which the problem is solved.
Not always a reliable method.

33. Problem-Solving Methods
Means-End Analysis
Means-end analysis is a heuristic problem-solving technique.
In means-end analysis, certain things we do (means) will have certain results (ends).
Focus on the knowledge that a particular action will have a particular result.
Working Backward
Involves breaking a problem down into parts and dealing with each part individually.
Starts by examining the final goal, then works back to determine the best course of action.
Very useful when the goal is known but the way to achieve it is not.

34. Problem-Solving Methods
Analogies
An analogy is a similarity between two or more items, events, or situations.
When people have successfully solved one problem, they may try to use the same approach in solving another problem if it is similar enough to the first one.

35. Obstacles to Problem Solving
Mental Sets
The tendency to respond to a new problem with an approach that was successfully used with similar problems is called mental set.
Mental set can get in the way of problem-solving.
Functional Fixedness
Another obstacle to problem solving is called functional fixedness, which is the tendency to think of an object as being useful only for the function that the object is usually used for.
Functional fixedness can interfere with finding a solution to a problem.

36. Problem Solving and Creativity
Flexibility
Flexibility is the ability to adapt to new, different, or changing situations.
Flexibility leads to original thinking.
Recombination
Recombination is the mental rearrangement of elements of a problem.
Insight and Incubation
Insight gives us sudden understanding of a problem.
The incubation effect is the tendency to arrive at a solution after a period of time away from the problem.

37. Reasoning and Decision Making
Deductive Reasoning
Reasoning is the use of information to reach conclusions. There are two main types of reasoning: deductive reasoning and inductive reasoning.
In deductive reasoning, the conclusion is true if the premises are true.
A premise is an idea or statement that provides the basic information that allows us to draw conclusions.
Inductive Reasoning
In deductive reasoning, we usually start out with a general statement or principle and reason down to specifics that fit that statement or principle.
In inductive reasoning, we reason from individual cases or particular facts to reach a general conclusion.
In inductive reasoning, the conclusion is sometimes wrong, even when the premises are correct.
Even though inductive reasoning does not allow us to be certain that our assumptions are correct, we use inductive reasoning all the time.
Most sciences, including psychology, rely on inductive reasoning.

38. Reasoning and Decision Making
Weighing Costs and Benefits
Making decisions means choosing among goals or courses of action to reach goals.
When we make decisions, we weigh the pluses and minuses of each possible course of action.
Making a balance sheet can help ensure that all available information has been considered.
A balance sheet can also be helpful when a person is making a decision between two or more alternatives.

39. The Basic Elements of Language
Phonemes
Phonemes are the basic sounds of language.
English uses about 43 phonemes, including some that are not found in other languages.
Syntax
The way in which words are arranged to make phrases and sentences is syntax.
The rules for word order are the grammar of a language
Morphemes
The units of meaning in a language are called morphemes.
Morphemes are made up of phonemes.
Semantics
The study of meaning in language is called semantics.
Semantics involves the relationship between language and the objects depicted in the language

40. Thinking Word List
Base Mild Water Ball Medium Flower B _ t H _ t S _ n Zero Mittens Food Nothing Boots Eat _ one _ oat _ eal
Gamble Base Mother Wager Ball Father B _ t H –t S _n Finished Oar Cards Complete Paddle Deck _ one _ oat _ eal

41. Thinking: Scrambled Set
WKAH OBRIN RROWSAP ORWC PORRTA CRINADAL BLYJUEA OLW
PU DWNO VOER NDUER FOTRN CKBA GHIH OLW