1. Think for a second about the most crazy thing you have ever seen…

2. when something like THIS could be possible…
Imagine in the future…
when something like THIS could be possible…

3. The future is now…

4. WELCOME TO GENETICS!!!

5. INTRO TO GENETICS

6. GENETICS the study of how traits are passed from one generation to the next

7. TRAIT a characteristic Examples: Plant size, seed color, pod shape

8. GENES
Each feature of the pea plants is controlled by a gene. It may have a gene that controls its color, another for size and another for shape.

9. GENE the factors that control traits (found in the DNA)

10. Above you see chromosomes. The circled area is a gene on chromosome #22. The absence of this gene causes velo-cardio-facial syndrome (VCFS) which may cause ADD and mental illness

11. ALLELES
Each gene comes in different forms called alleles, so the gene that controls flower color may come in two alleles: purple and white.

12. ALLELES different forms of a gene

14. GREGOR MENDEL The “father” of genetics Lived from 1822-1884
Austrian Monk
Published his work in 1866, but no one took him seriously until 1900.
Studied Pea Plants!

15. MENDEL’S EXPERIMENTS

16. Mendel experimented with 7 different characteristics

17. Mendel Got Lucky for 2 Big Reasons
First, he had a lot of time…he was a monk. This let him do LOTS of experiments with the peas!
Each trait had 2 options. This was key because he could tell if it was one way or the other.

18. HOMOZYGOUS organism with two identical alleles for the same trait (TT or tt)

19. HETEROZYGOUS organism with two different alleles for the same trait (Tt)

20. DOMINANT allele that is expressed when in the presence of a recessive allele (TT or Tt = tall)

21. RECESSIVE allele that is expressed only when homozygous (tt = short)

22. PHENOTYPE physical characteristics (Tall, Brown)

23. GENOTYPE the genetic makeup (TT, TtHh)

24. Dominant = T GENE = Height ALLELE = Tall, Short
Gene is represented by the letter “t”
Dominant = T
Recessive = t
Remember you need 2 copies of every gene!!!

25. How can we determine what the offspring are going to be?

26. PUNNETT SQUARES

27. Reginald C. Punnett
Inventor of the Punnett Square

28. PUNNETT SQUARES chart showing the possible combination of alleles in a cross

29. Punnett Squares show the probability of getting a certain type of offspring

30. THE PARENTS GENOTYPES DAD = Tt (heterozygous) MOM = Tt (heterozygous)
PHENOTYPES
DAD = Tall
MOM = Tall

31. PUNNETT SQUARES t T T t T T T T t t t t

32. THE OFFSPRING GENOTYPES 1TT:2Tt:1tt (1:2:1) TT (homozygous dominant)
Tt (heterozygous)
tt (homozygous recessive)

33. THE OFFSPRING PHENOTYPES 3 Tall :1 Short (3:1) TT (tall) Tt (tall)
tt (short)

34. Let’s cross you with the white flower.
What Mendel Did
Background:
Fertilization = when the female’s egg and the male’s sperm (flower sperm = pollen) unite to produce an embryo
Plants, animals, and most living things, sexually reproduce
Sexual reproduction = combination of egg and sperm to create a new cell, or embryo
Mendel’s peas were True-Breeding, meaning if they were allowed to self-pollinate, they would produce baby pea plants (offspring) identical to themselves
Mendel knew what to expect from his pea plants- they should look exactly like their parent plant!
He Cross-pollinated his pea plants, mixed up the parents, to see what the resulting plants would look like
Hmm, what have we here?

35. What Mendel Found F1 = first generation F2 = second generation
P x P F1
X F1
What Mendel Found F2
Mendel studied 7 different pea plant traits that varied from one individual plant to the next (like human traits!)
These traits had 2 forms, such as either green seeds or yellow seeds, smooth pods or wrinkled pods
He crossed plants with each of the 7 contrasting characteristics and studied their offspring
P = represents the parent generation
F (from the Latin word fillius and filia- son and daughter)
F1 = first generation
F2 = second generation
Hybrids = offspring of crosses between parents with different traits
Are you an F1 or F2?

36. Mendel’s Experiment
P generation
tall
short

37. Mendel’s Experiment
P generation
F1 generation
tall
short
tall
tall

38. Mendel’s Results All the F1 plants expressed only the dominant trait!
Seed Shape
Seed Color
Seed Coat Color
Pod Shape
Pod Color
Flower Position
Flower Height
wrinkled
green
white
constricted
yellow
terminal
short
Yellow dominant
Smooth dominant
Axial dominant
Tall dominant
round
yellow
gray
smooth
green
tall
axial
Round dominant
Gray dominant
Green dominant
Ha! Those are MY peas!

39. Where did the recessive traits go?
Mendel wanted to know why all his F1 plants expressed only dominant traits ?????
He wondered, “Had all the recessive traits disappeared? Or were they still present in the F1 plants?”
To answer this question, he allowed his F1 plants to self-pollinate
Naughty! Naughty!
F1 X F1 F2

40. Mendel’s Experiment P generation F1 generation tall short tall tall

41. Tall, short, tall, tall, tall, tall, tall, tall, SHORT! Ha!
Mendel’s Experiment
Tall, short, tall, tall, tall, tall, tall, tall, SHORT! Ha!
P generation
F1 generation
F2 generation
tall
short
tall
tall
tall
tall
tall
short

42. F1 Cross Mendel thought the results for his F1 cross were amazing!
All the recessive traits re-appeared in the F2 offspring!
This was due to segregation (separation) of alleles
Segregation of the alleles happens when gametes (sex cells) are formed
One trait comes from the father, one trait comes from the mother
I’m good!
Man of the
Year

43. Segregation
in meiosis two alleles separate so that each gamete (sex cell) receives only one form of the gene from each parent

44. Segregation Tt Tt T t T t TT Tt Tt tt F1 X F2 3 :1 Ratio Segregation
Tall
Tall
Segregation T t T t
Gametes
Gametes TT Tt Tt tt
Hmmm…. F2
Tall
Tall
Tall
Short
3 Tall, 1 Short
3 :1 Ratio

45. ‘Tis my peas against yours!
Section 11-3
Mendelian Genetics
Mendel wondered if the traits segregated independently, or were they somehow linked together
His experiment = 2 factor Test Cross for F1 and F2
Round Yellow peas
Genotype: RRYY
Wrinkled Green peas
Genotype: rryy X
100% RrYy, Round Yellow peas
‘Tis my peas against yours!
I won!

46. To segregate or not to segregate, that ‘tis question.
2 Factor Cross: F2
Mendel’s F1 plants were RrYy, or all heterozygous for seed shape and color genes
Mendel asked himself, “Would these alleles segregate independently? Or would they stay together?”
To find out, Mendel crossed his F1 plants to create the F2 generation: RrYy x RrYy
To segregate or not to segregate, that ‘tis question.
Box 27 X

47. Alleles for seed shape and color segregated independently
2 Factor Cross: F2
F2 plants :
556 seeds
315 round and yellow (parental)
32 wrinkled and green (parental)
209 combination of phenotypes (combo of alleles)
Alleles for seed shape and color segregated independently
Ah, my beautiful peas!

48. each trait is inherited independent of other traits (chance)
Independent Assortment
each trait is inherited independent of other traits (chance)

49. Mendel’s Principles of Inheritance
Inherited traits are transmitted by genes which occur in alternate forms called alleles
Principle of Dominance - when 2 forms of the same gene are present the dominant allele is expressed
Principle of Segregation - in meiosis two alleles separate so that each gamete receives only one form of the gene
Principle of Independent Assortment - each trait is inherited independent of other traits (chance)

50. Practice Problems

51. Cross a homozygous dominant with a recessive (for height where T is dominant and tall). Find the genotype and the phenotype

52. Cross a heterozygote with a recessive (for height where T is dominant and tall). Find the genotype and the phenotype

53. Cross a heterozygote with another heterozygote (for skin color where Black is B, b = white). Find the genotype and the phenotype

54. Cross a heterozygote with another heterozygote (for nose size where big nose is N and small nose is n). Find the genotype and the phenotype

55. If we saw an organism that had round seeds (round is dominant), how could we figure out what its genotype is?

56. A cross between an unknown and a homozygous recessive
Test Cross
A cross between an unknown and a homozygous recessive

57. Example of a Test Cross
Unknown

58. Codominance
When both characteristics of the dominant and recessive alleles is expressed. Example (Red flowers crossed with white flowers) RR= Red flower rr=white flower, Rr= red flower with white petals

59. Codominance

60. Codominance Cross r R R r R R R R r r r r

61. Codominance Cross r R R r R R R R r r r r

62. Incomplete Dominance
When an intermediate between the dominant and recessive is expressed. TT = tall, Tt = medium, and tt = short

63. Example of Incomplete Dominance
Notice the new
Phenotype (pink)

64. Multiple Alleles Genes that have more than 2 alleles.
Example: Rabbit’s coat color
C=full color, dominant to all other alleles
cch=chinchilla; partial defect in pigmentation; dominant to ch and c alleles
ch=Himalayan; color in certain parts of body; dominant to c allele
c=albino, no color; recessive to all alleles

65. Polygenic Traits These are traits controlled by two or more genes.
Ex: human skin color is controlled by more than 4 genes.
Ex2: the eyes of fruit flies are controlled by 3 genes.

66. Gene Map
It’s a map of a chromosome that shows the relative location of a certain gene.
Look at page 280 in your book at home.
The farther apart two genes are, the more likely they are to be separated by a crossover in meiosis.

67. Chapter 14-2

68. a trait that is found on either the X or Y chromosome
Sex Linked Trait
a trait that is found on either the X or Y chromosome

69. Hemophilia is an example of a sex linked trait.

70. a disease where your blood doesn’t clot.
Hemophilia
a disease where your blood doesn’t clot.

71. Hemophilia only occurs when all of the X chromosomes have a copy of the recessive gene.

72. XhXh:female hemophiliac
XHXh:female carrier
XhXh:female hemophiliac
XHY:normal male
XhY:hemophiliac male

75. SICKLE CELL ANEMIA

76. Difference between normal cells & sickle cells

77. ss = sickle cells (lethal)
SS = normal
Ss = carrier (SC trait)
ss = sickle cells (lethal)

78. Sickle Cells tend to get stuck easily in the circulatory system.

80. Why would African American’s be so much more likely to have Sickle Cell?

83. Regular red blood cells infected by malaria

84. Chapter 14-1

85. chart that shows the relationships within a family
PEDIGREE
chart that shows the relationships within a family

86. Sample Pedigree

87. Sample Pedigree

89. Pedigree Basics
Males are squares, females are circles, and unborn babies are triangles or octagons
Shaded figures represent individuals with the trait, a carrier could be 1/2 shaded
Generations are numbered with roman numerals (I, II, II, IV) from top to bottom
People within generations are numbered (1,2,3) from left to right

90. ANTIBODY
a protein produced by white blood cells in the body in response to the presence of an antigen, for example, a bacterium or virus

91. ANTIGEN
a substance, usually a protein, on the surface of a cell or bacterium that stimulates the production of an antibody

92. Blood Groups Blood group A
You have A antigens on the surface of your red blood cells and B antibodies in your blood plasma.
Blood group B
You have B antigens on the surface of your red blood cells and A antibodies in your blood plasma.

93. Blood Groups
Blood group AB You have both A and B antigens on the surface of your red blood cells and no A or B antibodies at all in your blood plasma.
Blood group 0
You have neither A or B antigens on the surface of your red blood cells but you have both A and B antibodies in your blood plasma.

94. Rh Factors
Many people have a Rh factor on the surface of their red blood cells. This is also an antigen and those who have it are called Rh+. Those who haven't are called Rh-.

95. You can belong to either of following 8 blood groups:
Possible Blood Groups
You can belong to either of following 8 blood groups:

96. Transfusions
The transfusion will work if a person who is going to receive blood has a blood group that doesn't have any antibodies against the donor blood's antigens.

97. People with blood group 0 are called "universal donors" and people with blood group AB are called "universal receivers.

98. PRACTICE TRANSFUSIONS

99. Chapter 13-4

100. Humans “clone” trees by cuttings
200 B.C.
Humans “clone” trees by cuttings

101. 1950
Humans clone frogs

102. 1980’s
Humans clone mice!

103. 1997
HUMANS CLONE SHEEP!!!

104. Humans clone 8 copies of a cow!!!
1998
Humans clone 8 copies of a cow!!!

105. 20??

106. GENETIC ENGINEERING
moving genes from one chromosome of one organism to the chromosome of another

107. “Fat” Gene
                                 

108. making an exact copy of another cell / organism
CLONING
making an exact copy of another cell / organism

109. Dolly—the first cloned sheep
Ian Wilmut, the dude that did it

110. Check out this short movie that talks about cloning…

111. A dividing cell

113. Read NYTimes Article "Despite Warnings, 3 Vow to Go Ahead on Human Cloning"
a. What did three proponents of human cloning announce on August 7, 2001? b. Where did they make this announcement? c. Why did some scientists at the symposium object to the proponents' announcement? d. Why did Dr. Alan Colman object to the research by these proponents being done in secret? e. According to the article, what was the consensus among the panel and most of those who testified before it?

114. Read NYTimes Article "Despite Warnings, 3 Vow to Go Ahead on Human Cloning"
f. Who was "Dolly"? g. What animals have been successfully cloned? h. According to the article, what is involved in cloning a human? i. How did the three proponents say they would address the possibility of genetic abnormalities? j. How did other experts at the symposium respond to this statement? k. Why do the proponents need to conduct their research secretly?

115. http://www. biology. arizona

116. Chapter 14-1

117. AMNIOCENTESIS
A technique used to determine the genetic traits of a baby before it is born

118. Karyotype Picture of human chromosomes sequenced from 1-23.
Chromosomes 1-22 are called autosomes.
Chromosome 23 are the sex chromosomes.

123. Klinefelter Syndrome
Have male genitalia and internal ducts, but underdeveloped testes
Do not produce sperm
Slight enlargement of the breasts
47,XXY
1 out of every 500 male births

124. Turner Syndrome Has female external genitalia Underdeveloped ovaries
Short (under 5 feed)
Webbed Neck
Broad, Shield-like chest
45,X
1 out of every 3000 female births

125. Cri-du-Chat Syndrome Partial monosomy (part of 1 chromosome is lost)
Loss of about 1/3 of the short arm of chromosome 5
Anatomical malfomrations (gastrointestinal and cardiac complications)
Mentally retarded
Abnormal development of the larynx which makes the baby’s cry sound like a cat’s cry
1 in 50,000 live births

126. Down Syndrome
BKA trisomy 21 (47, 21+); 3 copies of the 21st chromosome
Short
Small round heads
Protruding, furrowed tongues which cause mouth to remain partially open
Retarded (IQ below 70)
Shortened life expectancy (<50)
Prone to reparatory disease and heart malformations
Have 15x higher chance of getting leukemia
Chance of having a baby with Down syndrome goes up as the mother gets older