1. AP Psychology Prologue, Ch. 1,2,7 History of Psychology
Psychology as a Science

2. History of Psychology
Psychology-The science of behavior and mental processes
Psychology looks at 4 major issues:
-rationality vs. irrationality
-nature vs. nurture
-stability vs. change
-observation vs. introspection

3. Important Figures and Perspectives in Psychology
Freud: Believed in Psychoanalytic Theory and that people were products of their subconscious (unconscious) minds. Looked at dreams.
Jung: Believed in Analytic Psychology and followed Freud. Was more spiritual.
Darwin: Believed in Individual Differences and Survival of the Fittest also known as Natural Selection.

4. Important Figures and Perspectives
Beck, Bandura, Piaget: Believed in Cognitive Psychology-that we are a result of our thoughts and how we view the world.
Pavlov, Skinner, Watson, Locke: Believed that we are a result of what we observe, also known as behavioral psychology. Locke believed in “tabula rasa” or blank slate.

5. Important Figures & Perspectives
Neuroscience Perspective: Emphasizes that behavior is influenced by brain chemistry
Adler: Believed in Birth Order and Education
Rogers & Maslow: Believed that all people are born good, also known as humanistic psychology.

6. Experimental Psychology
3 types of studies in psychology:
The Survey
The Correlation
The Experiment

7. Survey
Take opinions on two concepts and see which one has greater support or influence

8. Correlation
Correlations run from -1 to +1 and can be considered positive or negative. The value tells the strength while the sign tells the direction. A positive correlation signifies two items moving in the same direction while a negative correlation signifies two items moving in opposite directions.
-.75 is stronger than +.55
-1.0 and are the strongest correlations

9. Scatterplots Scatterplots show correlation
A positive correlation is shown with a line that goes down to the left and up to the right.
A negative correlation is shown with a line that goes up to the left and down to the right.
A zero correlation has no line that can be drawn.

10. Experiments
While correlations have no cause-effect, experiments do. The experiment proves to show that one variable causes another such as aspirin causing a reduction in headaches.
Independent Variable: (IV) Introduced by the experimenter to change the results
Dependent Variable: (DV): Measured by the experimenter

11. Experiments
Placebo Effect: Something believed to be causing the results which is really psychological.
Random Sample: Ensures everyone in the population has an equal chance to be selected
Random Assignment: Equally assigns people to the control and experimental groups reducing the likelihood of preexisting differences.

12. Experiments
Baseline Measurement: Initial value before implementing procedures
Post Measurement: Value after implementing procedures
Control Group: Group which does not receive the independent variable
Experimental Group: Group which receives the independent variable.

13. Experiments
Hawthorne Effect: Researcher bias which affects the experiment
Single Blind: When the subject does not know which group the subjects are in.
Double Blind: When the subjects and researcher do not know which group the subjects are in.

14. Ch. 2 - Biology Neural Communication
Dendrites – Receives information and passes it to the cell body
Axons – largest part of cell body
Myelin Sheath – Protects axon and speeds neural impulses

15. Neural Communication – Cont’d
Action Potential – Electrical charge traveling down the axon which gives an all or none response
Threshold – Minimum amount of intensity
Synapse – Junction between the cells

16. Neurotransmitters Chemical messages in the brain
Acetylcholine (ACH) – Enables muscles, learning and memory; not enough leads to Alzheimers Disease
Dopamine: Movement, attention, learning & emotion. Too much leads to Schizophrenia and not enough leads to Dopamine

17. Neurotransmitters
Serotonin – Mood, hunger, sleep, arousal. Not enough leads to depression
Norepinephrine – Alertness & Arousal. Not enough can lead to depression
Endorphins: Controls pain and pleasure

18. Nervous System Divided into central & peripheral
Peripheral contains the somatic & autonomic
Autonomic contains the sympathetic & parasympathetic
Somatic controls voluntary movement
Autonomic controls involuntary movements
Sympathetic controls arousal & prepares you for stress
Parasympathetic controls the recovery

19. Sympathetic N.S. Dilates pupils Increases heart rate
Inhibits digestion
Stimulates glucose
Stimulates adrenaline
Relaxes bladder
Stimulates ejaculation

20. Parasympathetic N.S. Contracts pupils Decreases heart rate
Stimulates digestion
Stimulates gall bladder
Contracts bladder
Blood flow to sex organs

21. Endocrine System Hormones – Chemical messages in the blood
Adrenal Gland – Secretes adrenaline
Pituitary Gland – pea-size structure conrolled by the hypothalamus responsible for growth
Hypothalamus – Responsible for hunger, thirst, homeostatic balance

22. Brain Imaging
EEG-Electroencephalogram – amplified reading of the brain
PET Scan – Positron Emission Tomography – show’s brain’s chemical fuel
MRI – Shows spinning atoms of the brain
FMRI – functional MRI; Can reveal brain’s function and structure. Most sophisticated method.

23. Other Brain Structures
Thalamus – Telephone switch board
Medulla – Controls heartbeat & respiration
Reticular Formation – Controls arousal & alertness
Cerebrum – Controls higher level thinking

24. Other Brain Structures
Cerebellum – Coordinates movement & balance
Corpus Callosum – Connects the two hemispheres
Limbic System (Amygdala) – Controls emotion
Glial Cells – Support, nourish & protect neurons

25. Brain Lobes Frontal – Emotion & Judgement
Parietal – Sensory Information & touch
Occipital – Vision
Temporal – Hearing & Memory
Brocha’s Area – Language Expression (Speech)
Wernicke’s Area – Reception (Comprehension)
Aphasia – Language Impairment

26. Final Brain Terms
Angular Gyrus – Transforms visual representation into auditory codes
Plasticity – Brain’s ability to regenerate itself after damage
Right brain vs. Left Brain
Left Brain: right handed, logical, mathematical
Right Brain: Artistic Ability, Creative, Spatial Relations

27. Ch. 7 - Consciousness Selective Attention – Conscious Awareness
Inattentional Blindness – When attending to one task, not noticing other obvious stimuli in the background
Change Blindness – Not noticing obvious change in stimuli

28. Biological Rhythms Circadian Rhythms – 24 hour sleep-wake cycle
Sleep Stages – 1,2,3,4,Rem
Stage 1: (Alpha Waves) – relaxed phase
Stage 2 (Sleep Spindles)
Stage 3 (Theta Waves)
Stage 4 (Delta Waves) – Deep Sleep

29. Stage 4 – Deep Sleep Sleep talking occurs Sleep walking occurs
Enuresis – Bed Wetting
Encopresis – Bed Soiling
Night Terrors (Nightmares occur during REM

30. REM & n-REM As evening progresses, REM increases and n-REM decreases
Babies average 50% REM, Adults average 20%
REM Rebound – Lacking sleep one night will result in an increased REM the following night.
Sleep Medications reduce REM and speed individual to stage 4. Stopping increases REM and nightmares.

31. Final Sleep Terms Teens need 8-9 hours on average
Hallucination – Sensory experience without a stimulus
Narcolepsy – Inability to fall asleep
Apnea – Temporary loss of breath during sleep

32. Dream Theory Manifest Content – Story of dream
Latent Content – Meaning of dream
Theories:
To satisfy wishes (Freud wish fulfillment)
File away memories (Information Processing)
Preserve Neural Pathways (Physiological)
Reflect Cognitive Development (Cognitive)

33. Altered States Hypnosis – Suggestible state of mind
Posthypnotic suggestion – suggestions made during hypnosis carried out after hypnosis
Dissociation – Divided consciousness or mind split such as doodling during a lecture

34. Drugs & Alcohol
Drugs – Chemicals that change perception and mood by altering neural pathways
Tolerance – Brain adapts chemistry to offset drug effect
Withdrawal – Absence of drug causes effects
Addiction – Compulsive mental craving for substance
Dependence – Physical and mental cravings

35. Myths Addictive drugs corrupt quickly
Morphine always leads to heroine use
Addiction cannot be overcome voluntarily
All over-indulged behaviors are addictions

36. Classifications
Stimulants – Excite neural activity and arouse body functions
Cocaine – Creates euphoria & crash (compare to SSRI in reading)
Hallucinogen – Distorts perception and evokes sensory images in absence of input.
-LSD, Ecstasy, Marijuana
Marijuana – Mild hallucinogenic from THC

37. Final Altered States
Alcohol – Effects the transfer of material from short term to long term memory
Near Death Experience (NDE): An altered state of consciousness reported after a close brush with death similar to drug induced hallucinations.