1. Motivation of Individuals
10th Edition
Managing Organizational Behavior
Moorhead & Griffin
Chapter 4
Motivation of Individuals

2. Chapter Learning Objectives
After studying this chapter you should be able to:
Characterize the nature of motivation, including its importance and basic historical perspectives.
Identify and describe the need-based perspectives on motivation.
Identify and describe the major process-based perspectives on motivation.
Describe learning-based perspectives on motivation.
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3. The Nature of Motivation
The set of forces that leads people to behave in particular ways
The Importance of Motivation
Job performance (P) depends upon motivation (M), ability, and environment (E)
P = M + A + E
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4. 4.1 Motivational Framework
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5. The Motivational Framework
How Motivational Processes Occur:
A need is anything an individual requires or wants
A need deficiency leads to need to satisfy the need
Goal-directed behaviors result from individuals trying to satisfy their need deficiencies
Rewards and punishments are consequences of the goal-directed behavior
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6. Historical Perspectives on Motivation
The Traditional Approach
“Scientific Management” (Frederick Taylor) assumes that employees are motivated solely by money
The Human Relations Approach
Assumes employees’ needs outweigh money and that fostering favorable employee attitudes (the illusion of involvement) results in motivation
The Human Resource Approach
Assumes people want to make genuine contributions; managers should encourage their participation by providing the proper working environment conditions
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7. Need-Based Perspectives on Motivation
Need-Based Theories of Motivation
Assume that need deficiencies cause behavior
The Hierarchy of Needs (Abraham Maslow)
Assumes that human needs are arranged in a hierarchy of importance.
Basic (or deficiency) needs
Physiological
Security
Belongingness
Growth needs
Esteem
Self-actualization
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8. 4.2 The Hierarchy of Needs
Reference: Adapted from Abraham H. Maslow, “A Theory of Human Motivation,” Psychological Review, 1943, vol. 50, pp. 374–396.
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9. Need-Based Perspectives… (cont’d)
ERG Theory (Clayton Alderfer)
Describes existence (E), relatedness (R), and growth (G) needs
Assumptions:
More than one need may motivate a person at the same time
Satisfaction-progression and frustration-regression components imply that a person may not stay at the same level of need in Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs
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10. Need-Based Perspectives… (cont’d)
The Dual-Structure Theory (Herzberg)
Assumes that motivation, as a construct, has two separate dimensions:
Motivation factors which affect satisfaction
Hygiene factors which determine dissatisfaction
Assumes motivation occurs through job enrichment once hygiene factors are addressed
Criticisms:
May be both method and culture bound
Fails to account for individual differences
Factors (e.g., pay) may affect both dimensions
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11. 4.3 The Dual-Structure Theory of Motivation
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12. Process-Based Perspectives on Motivation
Other Important Needs
The Need for Achievement (David McClelland)
The desire to accomplish a task or goal more effectively than was done in the past
The Need for Affiliation
The need for human companionship
The Need for Power
The desire to control the resources in one’s environment
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13. Process-Based Perspectives… (cont’d)
Focus of Process-Based Perspectives
Why people choose certain behavioral options to satisfy their needs
How people evaluate their satisfaction after they have attained these goals
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14. Process-Based Perspectives… (cont’d)
The Equity Theory of Motivation
Focuses on the desire to be treated with equity and to avoid perceived inequity
Equity is a perceptual belief that one is being treated fairly in relation to others
Inequity is a perceptual belief that one is being treated unfairly in relation to others
The Equity Comparison
Outcomes (self) compared with Outcomes (other) Inputs (self) Inputs (other)
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15. 4.4 Responses to Perceptions of Equity and Inequity
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16. Process-Based Perspectives… (cont’d)
The Expectancy Theory of Motivation (Vroom)
Motivation depends on how much we want something and how likely we think we are to get it
Key Components
Effort-to-performance expectancy
The perceived probability that effort will lead to performance
Performance-to-outcome expectancy
The perceived probability that performance will lead to certain outcomes
Outcome
Anything that results from performing a behavior
Valence
The degree of attractiveness or unattractiveness (value) that a particular outcome has for a person
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17. 4.5 The Expectancy Theory of Motivation
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18. Process-Based Perspectives…(cont’d)
The Porter-Lawler Model
Focuses on the relationship between satisfaction and performance
Assumes that:
If rewards are adequate, high levels of performance may lead to satisfaction.
Satisfaction is determined by the perceived equity of intrinsic (intangible) and extrinsic (tangible) rewards for performance.
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19. 4.6 The Porter-Lawler Model
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20. Guidelines for Using Expectancy Theory
Determine the primary outcomes each employee wants
Decide what levels/kinds of performance are needed to meet organizational goals
Make sure the desired levels of performance are possible
Link desired outcomes and desired performance
Analyze the situation for conflicting expectancies
Make sure the rewards are large enough
Make sure the overall system is equitable for everyone
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21. Learning-Based Perspectives on Motivation
A relatively permanent change in behavior or behavioral potential resulting from direct or indirect experience
How Learning Occurs
Traditional View: Classical Conditioning
A simple form of learning that links a conditioned response with an unconditioned stimulus
Contemporary View: Learning as a Cognitive Process
Assumes people are conscious, active participants in how they learn
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22. Learning-Based Perspectives… (cont’d)
Reinforcement Theory and Learning
Operant Conditioning (Skinner)
Behavior is a function of its consequences
Reinforcement is the consequence of behavior
Types of Reinforcement
Positive reinforcement
A reward or other desirable consequence that a person receives after exhibiting behavior
Negative reinforcement (avoidance)
The opportunity to avoid or escape from an unpleasant circumstance after exhibiting behavior
Extinction
Decreases the frequency of behavior by eliminating a reward or desirable consequence that follows that behavior
Punishment
An unpleasant or aversive consequence that results from behavior
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23. 4.1 Schedules of Reinforcement
Schedule of Reinforcement Nature of Reinforcement
Command Groups Task Groups
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24. Learning-Based Perspectives… (cont’d)
Social Learning in Organizations
Occurs when people observe the behaviors of others, recognize their consequences, and alter their own behavior as a result
Conditions for social learning:
Behavior being observed and imitated must be relatively simple
Observed and imitated behavior must be concrete, not intellectual
Learner must have the physical ability to imitate the observed behavior
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25. Learning-Based Perspectives… (cont’d)
Organizational Behavior Modification (OB Mod)
The application of reinforcement theory to people in organizational settings
Effectiveness of OB Mod
Varying results in organizational applications
Lack of “real world” use
Ethics of OB Mod
Individual freedom of choice
Employee manipulation
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26. 4.7 Steps in Organizational Behavior Modification
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27. Organizational Behavior in Action
After reading the chapter opening case:
Which needs does working at Netapp fulfill for its employees?
Is it really possible to have an organization where almost all employees are (or appear be) satisfied?
What advantages does Netapp have when seeking people for employment? Disadvantages?
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