1. Chapter: 1 Phonetics
It is the study of perception and production of speech sounds (phonemes).
What is a phoneme?
A phoneme is the smallest phonological unit that has no meaning but greatly affects meaning.
One phoneme can change the entire meaning of a word.
(e.g., bat, hat, fan, fun)

2. An allophone
If each phoneme represents a “family of sounds” , an allophone is one member of that family.
Allophones must be in complementary distribution. (if a sound occurs, the other allophones do not as they function in the same way).

3. IPA
International Phonetic Alphabet
International Phonetic Association

4. English Phonemes Every language has a specific number of phonemes.
English phonemes “Speech sounds” include consonants, vowels and diphthongs:
24 consonants
20 vowels & diphthongs: monophthongd =12
diphthongs = 8

5. Articulators above larynx

6. Definition of articulators
1- The pharynx :
A tube which begins just above the larynx, and at its top end it is divided into two:
One part being the back of the oral cavity
The other being the beginning of the way through the nasal cavity.

7. 2- The soft palate or velum
It allows air to pass through the nose and through the mouth. In speech it is raised so that air cannot escape through the nose. The velar sounds /k/ and /g/ are produced when the tongue is in contact with the lower side of the soft palate.

8. 3- The hard palate:
It is the smooth curved surface in the oral cavity. A consonant made with the tongue close to the hard palate is called palatal. The sound /j/ in 'yes' is palatal.

9. 4- The alveolar ridge:
It is in a position between the top front teeth and the hard palate. Its surface is rough and covered with little ridges. Sounds made with the tongue touching this articulator are called alveolar, e.g. /t/, /d/, /n/) .

10. tip, blade, front, back and root.
5- The tongue:
It is the articulator that can be moved into many different places and different shapes. It is usually divided into five parts:
tip, blade, front, back and root.

11. 6- The teeth (upper and lower):
This articulator is at the front of the mouth, immediately behind the lips. The tongue is in contact with the upper side teeth for most speech sounds. Sounds made with the tongue touching the front teeth are called dental , such as /Ồ/, /θ/

12. 7- The lips:
They can be:
pressed together (when we produce the sounds /p/, /b/),
brought into contact with the teeth (as in /f/, /v/), or
rounded to produce the lip-shape for vowels like /u/
Sounds in which the lips are in contact with each other are called bilabial, while those with lip- to-teeth contact are called labiodental.

13. Other articulators
Larynx
Jaws
Nose

14. Vowels and consonants
Vowels are sounds in which there is no obstruction to the flow of air from the larynx to the lips.
Consonants are sounds in which there is a significant obstruction to the flow of air from the larynx to the lips.
The most important difference between vowel and consonant is not the way that they are made, but their different distributions.

15. Vowels Vowels, in general, differ from each other in two things:
The tongue height (the distance between the tongue and the palate)
The tongue shape (which part of the tongue is raised)
Front Back
Close i: u:
Open æ ɒ:

16. Phoneticians need a very accurate way to classify, describe and compare vowels:
They developed a more accurate diagram for the primary cardinal vowels.

17. Description of vowels
Description of vowel quality is determined by the following features:
(a) Tongue height ( close , close-mid , open-mid , open )
(b) Tongue shape (front, central, back )
(c) Lip rounding ( rounded , unrounded ( spread/neutral)

18. Short vowels The short vowels are:
/I/ , /e/ , / ᴧ / , /ӕ/ , /ɒ/ , /ʊ/ and /Ə/

19. Description of short vowels
/I/ close, front, slightly unrounded lips. (example words: 'bit', 'pin', 'fish')
/e/ open-mid, front, slightly unrounded lips. (example words: 'bet', 'men', 'yes')
/ӕ/ open, front, slightly unrounded. (example words: 'bat', 'man', 'gas')
/ᴧ/ more open than open-mid, central, unrounded (neutral) lips.
(example words: 'cut', 'come', 'rush')
/ɒ/ between open-mid and open, back, slightly rounded lips.
(example words: ‘pot', ‘gone', ‘cross')
/ʊ/ nearly close-mid, nearly central, rounded lips.
(example words: 'put', 'pull', 'push')

20. Exercises Recorded exercises 1-5 track 2 CD 1
Written exercises page 15

21. Chapter: 3 long vowels, diphthongs and triphthongs
Five long vowels:
/i:/ /ɜ:/ /ɑ:/ /ɔ:/ /u:/

22. Description of long vowels
/I:/ close, front, slightly unrounded lips.
(example words: 'beat', 'mean', 'peace' )
/ɜ:/ between open-mid and close-mid, mid-central, with slightly unrounded lips.
(example words: 'bird', 'fern', 'purse' )
/ɑ:/ open, back, with slightly unrounded lips.
(example words: 'card', 'half, 'pass')
/ɔ:/ close-mid, back, with rounded lips.
(example words: 'board', 'torn', 'horse')
/u:/ close, back, with rounded lips.
(example words: 'food', 'soon', 'loose')

23. Diphthongs
They are 8 in number (3 centring + 5 closing)

24. Centring diphthongs (3 sounds)
The centring diphthongs glide towards the /ə/(schwa)
/Iə/ starts close, front, unrounded lips and glides towards central, open-mid. (example words: 'beard', 'weird', 'fierce')
/eə/ starts open-mid, front, unrounded lips and glides towards central and more open. (example words: 'aired', 'cairn', 'scarce')
/ʊə/ starts close, back, rounded lips and glides towards central and more open.

25. Closing diphthongs (5 sounds)
3 closing diphthongs glide towards /I/ vowel
2 closing diphthongs glide towards /ʊ/ vowel
/eI/ /aI/ /ɔI/
/eI/ starts open-mid, front and glides towards /I/
(example words: 'paid', 'pain', 'face')
/aI/ starts open, near central and glides towards /I/
(example words: 'tide', 'time', 'nice')
/ɔI/ starts open-mid, back and glides towards /I/
(example words: 'void', 'loin', 'voice')

26. /əʊ/ /aʊ/
/əʊ/ starts central and half way between open and close
with slightly rounded lips as it slightly glides towards /ʊ/
(example words: 'load', 'home', 'most')
/aʊ/ starts open-mid, central, with slightly rounded lips as it slightly glides towards /ʊ/
(example words: 'loud', 'gown', 'house')

27. Triphthongs (5 sounds)
The triphthongs are composed of the five closing diphthongs with /ə/ added on the end of each sound.
/eIə/ (example words: ‘layer', ‘player')
/aIə (example words: ‘liar', ‘fire')
/ɔIə/ (example words: ‘loyal', ‘royal')
/əʊə/ (example words: ‘lower', ‘mower')
/aʊə/ (example words: ‘power', ‘hour')

29. Exercises (page 20 – 21)

30. Chapter: 4 Voicing and consonants
The larynx

31. States of the vocal folds

32. Respiration and voicing
How respiration happens:
Voicing happens when the vocal folds vibrate

33. The pressure below the vocal folds is called “subglottal pressure”
Three main variations can be recognized:
a) Variations in intensity (high – low )
b) Variations in frequency (high – low )
a) Variations in intensity (harsh - murmured )

34. Plosives Articulation of plosives undergoes 4 phases: Closing phase
Compression phase
Release phase
Post-release phase

35. English plosives How many:
Six plosives with different places of articulation:
/p, b/ are bilabial
/t, d/ are alveolar
/k, g/ are velar

36. Positions of plosives Initial position CV Medial position VCV
Final position VC

37. Voicing of plosives Fortis = strong voiceless /p/ /t/ /k/
Lenis = weak voiced
/b/ /d/ /g/

38. Exercises page (30)

39. Description of consonants
Description of a consonant quality is determined by the following features:
Oral-nasal release
Voicing (voiced/voiceless)
Place of articulation
Manner articulation

40. Place of articulation Bilabial Labiodental Dental Alveolar
Post-alveolar
palatal
Velar
glottal

41. Manner of articulation
Plosive
Fricative
Affricate
Nasal
Lateral approximant
Approximant

42. Chapter: 5 Phonemes and symbols
What is a phoneme?
A phoneme is the smallest phonological unit that has no meaning but greatly affects meaning.
One phoneme can change the entire meaning of a word.
(e.g., bat, hat, fan, fun)

43. An allophone
If each phoneme represents a “family of sounds” , an allophone is one member of that family.
Allophones must be in complementary distribution. (if a sound occurs, the other allophones do not as they function in the same way).

44. Allophone examples
Less or no voicing initial /b/ and the full voicing /b/
Example word: bad
The aspirated initial /t/ and the unaspirated final /t/
Example words: tea /ti:/ eat /i:t/

45. Symbols and transcription
Phonemic symbols 44 phonemes
Phonetic symbols
Many more symbols that contain a lot of information about the exact quality of sounds

46. Phonetics and phonology
Phonetics is the scientific study of speech.
It is the study of how speech sounds are produced, used in spoken language, recorded with written symbols and heard and recognized.
Phonology
Phonology is concerned with how sounds function in relation to each other in a language. Phonology is about sound systems of a language

47. Suprasegmental phonology
It is concerned with the sound contrasts that result from using:
Stress
Intonation
Pitch
Rhythm

48. Exercises page 38 a) speed b) partake c) book d) goat e) car f) bad
g) appeared
h) toast
i) stalk

49. Chapter: 6 Fricatives and affricates
Continuant consonants that are produced when air escapes through a narrow passage
Voiceless: /f/ /θ/ /s/ /ʃ/
/h/
Voiced: /v/ /Ồ/ /z/ /ʒ/
Affricates:
Complex consonants, starting as plosives and ending as fricatives
The plosive and the fricative must be “homorganic”
Voiceless: /ʧ/
voiced: /ʤ/

50. Audio exercise page 177
CD Audio 6 Ex.:

51. Describe the following
Labiodental Dental Alveolar Post-alveolar Glottal
Fortis ("voiceless") f θ s ʃ h
Lenis ("voiced") v Ồ z ʒ

52. Fortis (voiceless) consonants
These sounds are articulated with open glottis
Fricatives have the same characteristic
Plosive articulations (glottalisation) can be produced with completely closed glottis. The closure occurs immediately before /p/, /t/, /k/m / ʧ/
Examples:
With glottalisation Without glottalisation
nature /nei?ʧə/ /neiʧə/
actor /æ?ktə/ / æktə/

53. Exercises page 45 Transcribe the following words phonemically:
a) fishes / / e) achieves / /
b) shaver / / f) others / /
c) sixth / / g) measure / /
d) these / / h) ahead / /

54. Chapter: 7 Nasals and other consonants
All consonants are:
Plosives: 6 ……………………………………………………………
Fricatives: 9 ……………………………………………………………
Affricates: 2 ……………………………………………………………
Nasals: 3 ……………………………………………………………
Lateral approximant: 1 …………………………………………………………
Approximant: 3 ……………………………………………………………
Total: 24

55. Nasals The main characteristics of the nasals are:
The soft palate is lowered so that the air can escape through the nose
The 3 places of closure are:
Bilabial alveolar velar
/m/ /n/ / ɳ /
They are the same place as the plosives
/p,b/ /t,d/ /k,g/

56. Unusual distribution of /ɳ /
Initially: /m/ and /n/ occur freely, but not / ɳ /
If ‘….nk…’ occur in the middle of a word, / ɳk/ is pronounced
Ex: twinkle /twinɳkl/
Medial ‘…..ng…’ may be pronounced /ɳg/ or / ɳ /
/ɳg/ in the middle of a morpheme, / ɳ / at the end of a morpheme
Ex: finger /………………../ singer /…………………../
anger /………………../ hanger /……………………./
Final ‘ ……ng’ is pronounced / ɳ /

57. What about longer /……………………... / and longest /………………………/
So, phonologically, comparative …..er and superlative ….est can be treated as ……………………..
/ ɳ / rarely occurs after a diphthong or long vowel

58. Lateral approximant /l/
It is articulated by the complete closure between the centre of the tongue and the alveolar ridge and the air escapes along the sides of the tongue.
We have 2 allophones for the phoneme /l/
Clear /l/ ( only before vowels)
Dark /l/ (before consonants)

59. Approximant /r/
The tip of the tongue is raised to approach the alveolar area without contacting any part of the roof of the mouth.
The tongue is slightly curled backwards ; retroflex consonant
It only occurs before vowels.
Rhotic accent is that which have/r/ in final position (before a pause) and before a consonant ( American accent)
Non-rhotic accent is that which /r/ only occurs before vowels (BBC)

60. Approximants /j/ and /w/
Phonetically like vowels, phonologically like consonants
The articulation of /j/ is the same as that of /i/, but is very short. In the same way /w/ is closely similar to /u/
They are phonologically consonants as they only occur before vowel phonemes
Sometimes they are mispronounced as fricatives or affricates

61. Special cases
Approximants lose their voicing and become fricative when they are preceded by /p/ /t/ /k/. So words like 'play‘ , 'tray‘ , 'quick‘ , 'cue' contain devoiced and fricative /l/, /r/, /w/, /j/ whereas 'lay', 'ray', 'wick', 'you contain voiced /l/, /r/, /w/, /j/.
'pure' (no English words begin with pw)
'tune‘ 'twin'
'queue' 'quit‘

62. Exercises page 54-55

63. Chapter: 8 The syllable What is the syllable?
A unit of pronunciation having one vowel sound, with or without surrounding consonants, forming the whole or a part of a word.
For example, there are two syllables in wa-ter and three in in-fer-no

64. The nature of the syllable
A syllable must include a vowel, and may have consonant(s) preceding and following that vowel
are /a:/ or /ɔ:/ err /ɜ:/ V
bar /ba:/ key /ki:/ more /mɔ:/ CV
am /æm/ ought /ɔ:t/ ease /i:z/ VC
Ran /ræn/ sat /sæt/ fill /fil/ CVC

65. Parts of a syllable A centre (called peak or nucleus) which is a vowel
An onset (which is the initial part of the syllable) that consists of either one or more consonants.
A coda (which is the final part of the syllable) that consists of either one or more consonants.
The nucleus + the coda = the rhyme.
a syllable with the coda is called ‘closed syllable’ Example : cap, sit, man
a syllable without the coda is called ‘open syllable’. Example : he, she, me

66. The structure of the syllable
When we have two or more consonants together we call them a consonant cluster
Consonant clusters in the onset: ( beginning)
Initial two-consonant clusters are of two types:
1- Composed of (/s/ + one of a small set of consonants)
(pre-initial + initial)
Examples: ‘stay, spoon, skin, small, snow, sleep, swim, etc’.
2- Composed of (one of a set of fifteen consonants + /l, r, w, j/).
(initial + post- initial)
Examples: ‘fly, green, three, twin, pride, blind, try, quick, swim’.

67. Initial three-consonant clusters are: Composed of (/s/ + voiceless stop + approximant) (pre-initial + initial + post-initial) Examples: ‘splash, spread, string, screen, squeeze, etc’

68. Consonant clusters in the coda
If the syllable ends with a vowel, it has a zero coda
as in ‘car’ /ka:/; ‘see’ /si:/.
A syllable may end with one consonant, except /h, r, w, j/.
Examples: ‘at’ /æt/; ‘kick’ /kik/, ‘catch’ /kætʃ/, ‘seen’ /si:n/.
A syllable may end with a cluster of two, three or four consonants
Examples: ‘books, six, bank, banks, prompts, etc’.

69. Examples: ‘help, bank, edge, belt, blind, books, six etc’.
Final one consonant – all consonants except /h/, /w/, /j/, is called ‘final’
Final two-consonant clusters are called:
(pre-final ( /m, n, ɳ, l, s/) + final) or (final + post final (/ s, z, t, d, θ/)
Examples: ‘help, bank, edge, belt, blind, books, six etc’.
Final three-consonant clusters are called :
(pre-final +final + post-final ) Examples: helped, banks, bonds, twelfth Or
(final + post final 1 + post final 2) Examples: fifths, next, lapsed
Final four-consonant clusters are called : (pre-final + final + post final 1 + post final 2)
Examples: twelfths, prompts
In some cases ( final + post final 1 + post final 2 + post-final 3)

70. The maximum syllable structure

71. Phonotactics
It is the study of the possible phoneme combination of a language
In a syllable-initial position:
- A syllable can begin with a vowel, or with one, two or three consonants.
No syllable begins with more than three consonants.
If a syllable begins with one consonant, the initial consonant can be any consonant phoneme except /ɳ/
In a syllable-final position:
- A syllable can end with a vowel, or with one, two, three or four consonants.
No syllable ends with more than four consonants.
If a syllable ends with one consonant, the final consonant can be any consonant phoneme except /h, r, w, j/.

72. Tree diagraming for syllable structure
Think of ( cat – skin – limit )

73. Tree diagraming for syllable structure

74. Syllable division How we decide on the division
Think of the following:
morning
extra
better
carry

75. Exercise page 63
Squealed
Eighths
Splash
texts

76. Chapter : 9 strong and weak syllables