1. Chapter 8
Minerals

2. Key Concepts
A mixed diet of varied, colorful foods with adequate energy value is the best source of the minerals necessary for health.
Of the total amount of minerals a person consumes, only a relatively limited amount is available to the body.
Building blocks of life
Hydrogen
Carbon
Nitrogen
Oxygen
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3. Functions of Minerals Functions of minerals Building tissue
Activating, regulating, transmitting, and controlling metabolic processes
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4. The Nature of Body Minerals
Classes of body minerals
Major minerals (>100 mg/day)
Trace elements (<100 mg/day)
Mineral metabolism
Digestion: minerals do not require much digestion
Absorption: rate determined by food form, body need, tissue health
Transport: enter through portal circulation, bound to proteins
Tissue uptake: controlled by hormones, excess excreted in urine
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5. Major Minerals Calcium - Ca Phosphorus - P Sodium - Na Potassium - K
Chloride - Cl
Magnesium - Mg
Sulfur - Su
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6. Calcium Functions Bone and tooth formation Blood clotting
Muscle contraction and nerve action
Metabolic reactions – helps with:
Absorption of B12
Activation of pancreatic lipase
Secretion of insulin
Cell membrane permeability
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7. Calcium, cont’d Requirements 1000 mg/day Deficiency states Toxicity
Osteoporosis
Toxicity
hypercalcemia
Food sources
Milk is the major food source
Green vegetables (broccoli, spinach, kale),
fish with bones like sardines, fortified food
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8. Osteoporosis
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9. Phosphorus Functions Bone and tooth formation
Energy metabolism – helps with:
Oxidation of carbohydrate, fat, and protein
Energy and protein metabolism
Cell function and genetic inheritance
Component of enzymes, thiamin, DNA/RNA
Acid-base balance
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10. Phosphorus, cont’d Requirements: 700 mg/day
Deficiency states: hypophosphatemia
Toxicity- symptoms of hypocalcemia
Food sources
All living tissue especially meats
Milk, milk products, fish, eggs
Plant seeds
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11. Sodium Functions Water balance Muscle action Nutrient absorption
Deficiency states
Rare unless excessive sweating or water intake
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12. Sodium, cont’d Requirements Toxicity symptoms
AI: 1.5 g/day
UL: 2.3 g/day
average no more than 2 gm per day
Toxicity symptoms
Salt sensitivity and hypertension
Food sources
Table salt, cured meat, canned soups, processed food
Vegetables –carrots, leafy greens and celery
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13. Potassium Requirements: AI: 4.7 g/day Functions Water balance
Metabolic reactions – helps with:
Conversion of blood glucose to glycogen
Storage of nitrogen in muscle protein
Production of energy
Muscle action/ cardiac contraction
Insulin release
Blood pressure- increasing potassium (intracellular ion) and decreasing sodium (extracellular ion)
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14. Potassium, cont’d
Deficiency- American diet is low; eat your vegetables!! Low = muscle weakness and cardiac irregularity
Toxicity with renal disease; excessive intake
Food sources
Oranges, bananas, tomato, leafy green vegetables, whole grains, fresh meats, milk products
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15. Chloride Functions Water balance Acid base balance Digestion
Key element in hydrochloric acid secretion
Respiration
Plays a role in transport of CO2 in the blood
Source: Table salt
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16. Chloride (cont’d) Requirements: AI: 2.3 g/day
Deficiency states: through vomiting
Toxicity symptoms: from severe dehydration
Food sources: table salt
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17. Magnesium Functions General metabolism
Necessary catalyst for ~300+ reactions in cells
Protein synthesis activates amino acids, role in synthesis and maintenance of DNA
Muscle action: cardiac contractility & used in preventing premature labor
Basal metabolic rate
Influences secretion of thyroxine
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18. Magnesium, cont’d Requirements: ~300 to 400 mg/day
Deficiency states: hypomagnesemia, rare with balanced diet
Toxicity symptoms: excessive supplements may produce GI symptoms.
Toxicity with renal disease
Food sources
Nuts, soybeans, cocoa, seafood, dried beans and peas, green vegetables, whole grains
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19. Sulfur Functions Hair, skin, and nails General metabolic functions
High-energy bond
Transfer energy
Vitamin structure
Collagen structure
Food sources
Meat, nuts, soy, fish, cheese, eggs
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20. Key Concepts
A mixed diet of varied foods and adequate energy value is the best source of the minerals necessary for health.
Of the total amount of minerals a person consumes, only a relatively limited amount is bioavailable to the body.
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21. Trace Elements Iron Iodine Zinc Selenium Fluoride Copper Manganese
Chromium
Molybdenum
Cobalt
Boron
Vanadium
Nickel
The recommended intake for trace minerals is less than 100 mg/day

22. Iron Functions Deficiency states Requirements
Hemoglobin synthesis and general metabolism
Deficiency states
Anemia
Requirements
8 to 11 mg/day for males
8 to 18 mg/day for females
Toxicity symptoms- Hemochromatosis
Food sources
Heme (rapid absorption) – 40 % animal foods
Nonheme (slow absorption )– 60% animal and all plants (increased absorption with Vit C)
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23. Iodine
Functions
Participation in thyroid gland’s synthesis of thyroxine
Requirements: 150 mcg/day
Deficiency states
Goiter – usually a lack of iodine causes this
Cretinism – hypothyroid of childhood
Hypothyroidism
Hyperthyroidism
Food sources
Iodized table salt, seafood; depends on soil content
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24. Goiter
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25. Zinc Functions Requirements Deficiency states
Enzyme constituent
Immune system
Protects RBC from damage
Requirements
11 mg/day for males & 8 mg/day for females
Deficiency states
Poor wound healing
Impaired taste and smell
Iron inhibits absorption
Toxicity- Abdominal pain, nausea, vomiting and diarrhea, headache, irritability, lethargy, anemia & dizziness.
Food sources- Meat, seafood, legumes, whole grains
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26. Selenium Functions Part of antioxidants Requirements
RDA: 55 mcg/day
Deficiency affects immune system
Toxicity symptoms – brittle hair and nails
Food sources
Seafood, Organs (kidney, liver, etc.); depends on soil content where plants are grown
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27. Other Trace Elements Fluoride Functions by preventing dental caries
Exceeding UL may cause fluorosis
Copper : “Iron twin” (works the same way)
Found in organ meats(liver), seafood nuts & legumes.
Manganese
Inhalation toxicity
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28. Other Trace Elements, cont’d
Chromium
Glucose tolerance factor
Molybdenum
Inadequate dietary intake improbable
Other essential trace elements
Aluminum, arsenic, boron, nickel, silicon, tin, vanadium
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29. Mineral Supplementation
Life cycle needs
Pregnancy and lactation
Adolescence
Adulthood
Clinical needs
Iron-deficiency - anemia
Zinc deficiency – immune system weakens
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30. Summary
Minerals are single, inorganic elements that are classified according to their relative amounts in the body.
Major minerals make up 60% to 80% of all inorganic material in the body.
Trace elements make up less than 1% of the body’s inorganic material.
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31. Chapter 9
Water Balance

32. Key Concepts of Water Balance
Water compartments inside and outside cells maintain a balanced distribution of total body water via osmosis and diffusion.
The concentration of various solute particles in water determines internal shifts and movement of water.
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33. Homeostasis Body’s state of dynamic balance
Capacity of the body to maintain life systems despite what enters the system from outside
Homeostatic mechanisms protect the body’s water supply
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34. Body Water Functions Solvent
Water is the basic liquid solvent for all chemical processes within the body
Transport
Nutrients carried through the body in water-based fluids (e.g., blood, secretions)
Thermoregulation
Maintains stable body temperature
Body lubricant – serous and synovial fluids

35. Body Water Requirements
Surrounding environment
Body water evaporates as sweat and must be replaced
Activity level
More water is needed for increased metabolic demand during physical activity
Functional losses
Disease process affects water requirements
Metabolic needs
1000 ml of water necessary for every 1000 kcal in the diet
Age
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36. Fluid Compartments
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37. Other Dietary Factors Dehydration >2% total body weight loss
Special concern in the elderly
Water intoxication
Those at risk:
Infants
Psychiatric patients
Patients on psychotropic drugs
Endurance athletes
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38. Percentage of Body Weight Loss
Figure information:
From Mahan LK, Escott-Stumps: Krause’s food and nutrition therapy, ed 12, Philadelphia, 2008, Saunders.
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39. Body Water Amount and Distribution
Extracellular fluid
Total body water outside cells
One quarter of extracellular fluid is blood plasma
Three quarters is water surrounding cells and bathing tissues, water in dense tissue, and water moving through the body as secretions
Interstitial fluid
Fluid surrounding cells in tissues
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40. Body Water Amount and Distribution, cont’d
Intracellular fluid
Total body water inside the cells
Twice the volume of that outside the cells
Overall water balance
Average adult metabolizes 2.5 to 3 L of water/day
100 ounces per day
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41. Distribution of Total Body Water
Figure information:
From Thibodeau GA, Patton KT: Anatomy & physiology, ed 6, St Louis, 2007, Mosby.
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42. Electrolytes
Small, inorganic elements that break apart in a solution and carry an electrical charge (ions)
Cations: positive charge
Anions: negative charge
Balance between cation and anion concentration maintains chemical neutrality necessary for life
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43. Plasma Proteins Mainly albumin and globulin
Organic compounds of large molecular size
Retained in blood vessels, does not diffuse out
Controls water movement
Colloids guard blood volume (colloidal osmotic pressure)
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44. Separating Membranes Capillary membrane Thin and porous
Water molecules, electrolytes and nutrients move freely across them
Cell membrane
Thicker membranes
Constructed to protect and nourish cell contents
Uses channels for specific ions or molecules
Fats merge freely
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45. Forces Moving Water and Solutes Across Membranes
Osmosis
Process or force that impels water molecules to move throughout body
Moves water molecules from an area of greater concentration to an area of lesser concentration
Diffusion
Force by which particles in solution move outward in all directions from an area of greater concentration to an area of lesser concentration
Facilitated diffusion
Similar to simple diffusion
Addition of transporters that assist particles across membrane

46. Moving Water and Solutes Across Membranes
Filtration
Water is forced through membrane pores when pressure outside the membrane is different
Active transport
Necessary to carry particles “upstream” across separating membranes
Pinocytosis
Larger molecules attach to thicker cell membrane, then are engulfed by cell
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47. Capillary Fluid Shift Mechanism
Cells’ water and nutrients must move from capillaries to cells.
Water and cell metabolites must return to capillaries.
Uses opposing fluid pressures:
Hydrostatic pressure
Colloidal osmotic pressure
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48. Organ Systems Involved in Body Water Balance
Gastrointestinal circulation
Water from blood plasma is continually secreted into the gastrointestinal tract.
In the latter portion of the intestine, most water and electrolytes are reabsorbed into the blood.
Isotonicity: equal osmotic pressure
Clinical applications: loss of isotonicity through vomiting or prolong diarrhea
Renal circulation
Kidney filters the blood to maintain water balance and proper solution of blood
Hormonal controls:
Antidiuretic hormone mechanism
Renin-Angiotensin-Aldosterone mechanism

49. Acids and Bases
Homeostatic balance of acidity or alkalinity must be maintained in body water solutions and secretions
The concentration of hydrogen ions determines the acidity level
Acidity expressed in terms of pH
Acids and bases: refers to hydrogen ion concentration, pH of 7 is neutral
Acid: compound has more hydrogen ions, can release ions when in solution
Base: compound with fewer hydrogen ions, can accept ions when in solution
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50. Acid-Base Buffer System
Handles an excess of acid or base
Mixture of acid and base that protects a solution from wide variations in pH
Main buffer system:
carbonic acid (H2CO3- from H2O and CO2)
base bicarbonate (HCO3)
(seen in the chloride shift during CO2 transport)

51. Acid-Base Buffer System con’t
Respiratory control
Carbon dioxide- leaves the body raising blood pH
Urinary control
Kidney monitors hydrogen ions:
May excrete hydrogen in urine by trading H for NA
May keep hydrogen to lower the pH
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52. Summary Overall water balance is maintained by fluid intake and output
Two types of solute particles control the distribution of body water
Electrolytes
Plasma protein
The acid-base buffer system uses electrolytes and hydrogen ions to maintain a normal extracellular fluid pH of approximately 7.4
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