1. Globalisation and crime
Globalisation: the world is becoming increasingly interconnected and barriers are disappearing

2. Globalisation has many causes
Spread of new information and ict
Influence of a global mass media
Cheap air travel
Deregulation of financial and other markets

3. How does crime relate to globalisation
Crime has also been globalised: crime has become more interconnected across boarders
Globalisation has brought about the spread of transnational organised crime
Globalisation has created new opportunities for crime, new means of committing crime and new offences eg cyber crime, people trafficking

4. Castells
As a result of globalisation, there is now a global criminal economy worth over £1 trillion
Castells states that one of the reasons for globalised crime is the idea of supply and demand
The demand for products and services comes from rich countries in the west and the supply from usually developing countries / third world countries
Eg developing drug producing countries have large populations of impoverished people and drug civilisation is an attractive option that requires little investment in technology and commands higher prices compared with traditional crops

5. Beck: global risk consciousness
Globalisation creates a new risk consciousness- risk is seen as global rather than tied to particular places/ locally
Media often have an involvement
Eg may create a moral panic about immigration- coming over taking jobs and trafficking people, prostitution
Can lead to public support for increased attempts at international cooperation and control over various areas eg 9/11 justified the war on terror

6. Taylor (left realist): Globalisation, capitalism and crime
Taylor argues globalisation has created crime at both ends of the social spectrum
It has allowed transnational corporations to no longer be regulated as tightly by governments- don’t have to comply to strict conditions
Free markets and deregulation mean that governments have little control over their own economies, has led to greater inequality and rising crime as state spending on welfare has declined
Transnational corporations switch manufacturing to low wage countries to gain higher profits, producing job insecurity, unemployment and poverty
Has also led to the marketisation of society by creating self-seeking individuals concerned only with material wealth undermining social cohesion
Left realists claim the increasing materialistic culture promoted by the global media portrays success in terms of a lifestyle of consumption which leads to individuals committing utilitarian crime to achieve goals of society
A03: not all poor people turn to crime

7. Patterns of criminal organisations

8. Hobbes
Argues that crime is no longer just local but ‘glocal’, as it involves networks of people across the globe
Rather than being based on old mafia-style fixed hierarchies, criminal networks are increasingly more fluid as well as drugs other examples of glocal trade are trafficking women and children for prostitution and slavery and smuggling legal and stolen goods to sell on foreign markets
Process: forms of globalised organisations sometimes have international links, especially with the drugs trade, but crime is still rooted in its local context
Eg individuals still need local contacts and networks to find opportunities and to sell their drugs, but they also need the product

9. Gleeny
Tracks the spread of modern transnational crime to the breakup of the soviet union and the berlin blockade and the simultaneous deregulation of global markets
In Russia this created opportunities for a new capitalist class (often ex communist officials) to make vast sums of money selling the countrys natural resources, such as gas, on global markets
To protect their wealth these ‘oligarch’ turned to new ‘macmafias’, comprised of ex-communist secret service employees, police etc and former criminals
Again, these criminal networks were not organised like the traditional mafia, and groups such as the chechens would even franchise their businesses to other parts of the globe

10. Green crime
Is any crime against the environment linked to globalisation as the planet is a single eco-system that is being threatened

11. Two types of crimes (south)
Primary crimes
Secondary crimes
Green crimes that are the direct result of the destruction and degradation of the earths resources- deliberately doing it
Air pollution by burring fossil fuels, deforestation, water pollution leading to lack of clean drinking water or lack of access to it
Green crimes involve the flouting of existing laws and regulating eg dumping toxic waste and breaking health and safety rules, hazardous waste, bohpal and Chernobyl

12. Beck: global risk society and the environment
Beck claims that we live in a global risk society since the increase of technology and productivity has created new ‘manufactured risks’ dangers that we have never faced before
Many of these risks involve harm to the environment and its consequences for humanity, such as global warming caused by green house gas emission from industry

13. Criminology Only studies patterns and causes of law breaking
Traditional criminology
Gren criminology
Only studies patterns and causes of law breaking
Transgresses (oversteps) the boundaries of traditional criminology
White argues that current laws are inadequate and that green crime should be defined as any crime that causes harm even if it is not illegal
He argues that green crimes such as deforestation of the rainforests are not being adequately dealt with by internal laws, due to the influence of transnational corporations like mconalds

14. Harm
White argues that green criminology takes an ecocentric view, which sees environmental harm as being interconnected with the future of human well being and the world
This contrasts with the anthropocentric view favoured by transnational corporations the view that believes humans have a right to exploit the resources of the planet, including animals, for their own benefit

15. Evaluation of green crime
Draws attention the increase in manufactured global risks and global environmental concerns
It identified the need to address the impact of environmental damage to both humans and the other species on the planet
Green crimes emphasis on harm means that it is based on subjective opinions. There are no clear boundaries in terms of defining or studying green crime

16. State crime
These are crimes or deviant activities that have been state endorsed, or perpetrated by the state or its agencies with permission
State crimes are committed by, or on behalf of the states and government in order to further their policies
Eg: genocide (holocaust), executions (bin laden), war crimes (blair, bush), torture etc

17. Mclaughlin: categorising state crimes (4)
1: political crimes: eg corruption and censorship
2: crimes by security and armed forces: eg genocide, torture
3: economic crime: eg official violations of health and safety laws
4: social and cultural crimes: eg institutional racism

18. Why is state crime a serious crime
As it reflects the scale/magnitude of state crime: it shows how the state is able to commit large scale crimes with widespread victimisation. Shows how states are able to inflict massive harm and has the power and means to conceal its crime and evade punishment. The media focuses on state crimes in third world countries but avoids reporting on such crimes in the west
The state is a source of law, so no one can challenge it: it shows how the state defines a criminal and manages the cjs by picking and choosing what types of crimes to prosecute. Its power to make the law also means it can deny its own crimes. State control of the cjs also means it can persecute its enemies. The state is ‘above the law’

19. The state and human rights
State crime can be examined through the notion of human rights

20. Here is no agreed list of human rights but most definitions include
Natural rights: these are what people are regarded as having simply by the virtue of existing eg right to life, liberty and free speech
Civil rights: these are rights, like the right to vote, to a fair trial and to education
A right is an entitlement and acts as protection against the power of the state over an individual
Examples of the state violating human rights: nazi party making it legal to persecute jews and sterilising disabled people

21. Crime as a violation of human rights
Critical criminologists, schwendinger argue that we should define crime in terms of the violation of basic human rights, rather than the breaking of legal rules
Schwendiger studies semiology as they study social harms rather than crime that is defined by the criminal law
With this definition, states that deny individuals human rights must be regarded as criminal. So states that practice imperialism, racism or sexism, or inflict economic exploitation on their citizens are committing crimes
The state should be seen as a perpetrator of crime and not simply as the authority that defines and punishes crime
Zemiology: the study of harms. It is concerned with why some harms are to be defined as crimes while others do not, even when they cause more damage than do many crimes. Often such harm are committed by groups such as big businesses and the state, who have the power to define their actions as legal

22. Evaluation of scwendiger
Cohen: while ‘gross’ violations of human rights, such as genocide, torture are clearly crimes, other acts like economic exploitation are not self evidently criminal, even if we find them morally unacceptable
Other critics argue that there is only limited agreement on what counts as a human right eg some would argue that freedom from poverty is not a human right

23. Cohen: spiral of denial (3 stages)
Cohen is particularly interested in the ways in which state conceal and legitimate their human right crimes
While dictatorships deny committing human rights abuses, states have to legitimise their actions in more complex ways
Stage 1: ‘it didn’t happen’: for example, the state claims that there was no massacre but the human rights organisations, victims and the media show it did happen
Stage 2: ‘its not what it looks like’
Stage 3: justify stage: it was self defence, to protect national security etc

24. Cohen: neutralisation theory (from matza)
Cohen examines the way in which states and their officials deny or justify their crimes
Draws on the work of matza who identified 5 neutralisation techniques that delinquents use to justify their deviant behaviours
Cohen shows how states use the same techniques when they are attempting to justify human rights violations
1: denial of victims: they exaggerate eg they are terrorists, they used violence, look at what they do to each other
2: denial of injury: they started it, we are the real victims not them
3: denial of responsibility: only obeying orders, doing duty
4: condemning the condemners: the whole world is picking on us, its worse elsewhere, they are condemning us because of their anti-Semitism/hostility/racism
5: Appeal to higher loyalty: still righteous justification- the appeal to the higher cause, whether the nation, the revolution, islam the defence of the ‘free world’, sate security etc, isis = god
These techniques do not seek to deny that the event has occurred. Rather, as cohen says – they seek to negotiate or impose a different construction of the event from what might appear to be the case

25. The social conditions needed for state crime
Sociologists argue that some state crimes are part of a role individuals are socialised into
Hamilton et al termed this ‘crimes of obedience’
1: authorisation: this is when acts are ordered or approved of by those in higher authority. This is where moral principles are replaced by a ‘duty to obey’
2: routinisation: the crime become routine- a common practice that can be done in a clinical, detached manner
3: dehumanisation: this is where the ‘enemy of the state’ is portrayed as subhuman. Not to be treated as normal/ here the usual principles of morality do not apply eg holocaust – jews, nazi Germany

26. Evaluation of state crime and human rights
Human rights are interpreted differently by different states- there is no global policing on this
Critics of this view would argue that so-called state crimes are not in fact criminal. They would reject the notion of ‘state crime’ and would argue that acts such as increased censorship and the restricting of the human rights of suspected terrorists are necessary in the case of national interest