1. Chapter 8 Periodic Relationships Among the Elements
8.2 Periodic Classification of the Elements
8.3 Periodic Variation in Physical Properties
Effective nuclear charge
Atomic Radius
Ionic Radius
8.4 Ionization Energy
8.5 Electron Affinity
Electronegativity (ch.9 p )
p357: 8.5, 8.8, 8.12, 8.20, 8.24, 8.26, 8.28, 8.30, 8.32
p358: 8.36, 8.38, 8.40, 8.44, 8.46
p358: 8.52, 8.54, 8.62, 8.64
Dr.Laila Al-Harbi

2. Metals – metalloids – non metals in periodic table
Chapter 8 :Classification of elements
Metals – metalloids – non metals in periodic table
1-Representative elements (main group elements):
Groups 1A to 7A
Incompletely filled s and p orbitals
1A = alkaline metals
2A = alkaline earth metals
7A = halogens
2-Noble gas group:
Group 8A
Filled p subshell (except He which has a filled s orbital)
3-Transition metal
Groups 1 B to 8 B
Unfilled d orbitals
4-Lanthanides and actinides
Incompletely filled f subshells
Lanthanides = rare earth metals

3. ns ns np ns ns (n-1)d Chapter 8 :Block system of periodic table
S block
p block ns
ns (n-1)d
d block
f block

4. The elements in group 4A :carbon (C) is a nonmetal, silicon (Si)and germanium (Ge)are metalloids, and tin(Sn) and lead(Pb) are metals .
halogens(nonmetals)(Florine(F),Iodine(I),Chlorine(Cl),Bromine(Br)) form an ion with a charge of (-1)(F-,I-,Cl-,Br-)
Dr.Laila Al-Harbi

5. ns2np6 ns1 ns2np1 ns2np2 ns2np3 ns2np4 ns2np5 ns2 d10 d1 d5 4f 5f
Ground State Electron Configurations of the Elements
ns1
ns2np1
ns2np2
ns2np3
ns2np4
ns2np5
ns2
Within a Period number of electrons increase
Within a group (n) increase
d10 d1 d5 4f 5f
Dr.Laila Al-Harbi

6. Valence electrons the outermost electrons
Chapter 8 : Classification of the Elements
Valence electrons the outermost electrons
Core electrons are nonvalence electrons in an atom
Example
Na 10 core electrons 1 outermost (valence electron)
Cl 10 core electrons 7 outermost (valence electron)

7. ELECTRON CONFIGURATIONS - THE GROUND STATE
1H s1
2He s2
3Li s22s1
4Be s22s2
5B s22s22p1
6C s22s22p2
7N s22s22p3
8O s22s22p4
9F s22s22p5
10Ne s22s22p6
period 1
11Na s22s22p63s1
12Mg s22s22p63s2
13Al s22s22p63s23p1
14Si s22s22p63s23p2
15P s22s22p63s23p3
16S s22s22p63s23p4
17Cl s22s22p63s23p5
18Ar s22s22p63s23p6
period 2
Period 2
Period 3
Dr.Laila Al-Harbi

8. 19K s22s22p63s23p64s1
20Ca s22s22p63s23p64s2
21Sc s22s22p63s23p64s23d1
22Ti s22s22p63s23p64s23d2
23V s22s22p63s23p64s23d3
NOT 4s23d4
24Cr s22s22p63s23p64s13d5
There is a tendency toward half-filled and completely filled d subshells. This is a consequence of the closeness of the 3d and the 4s orbital energies.
Dr.Laila Al-Harbi

9. Additional exceptions are Mo 5s14d5; Ag 5s14d10; Au 6s15d10
The 3d level becomes more stable as we move from left to right on the periodic chart. Remember there is an increase in the number of protons consequently, an increase in the number of electrons as we move from left to right on the chart.
30Zn s22s22p63s23p64s23d10
31Ga s22s22p63s23p64s23d104p1
32Ge s2 2s22p63s23p64s23d104p2
33As s2 2s22p63s23p64s23d104p3
34Se s22s22p63s23p64s23d104p4
35Br s22s22p63s23p64s23d104p5
36Kr s22s22p63s23p64s23d104p6
25Mn s22s22p63s23p64s23d5
26Fe s22s22p63s23p64s23d6
27Co s22s22p63s23p64s23d7
28Ni s22s22p63s23p64s23d8
NOT 4s23d9
29Cu s22s22p63s23p64s13d10
Additional exceptions are Mo 5s14d5; Ag 5s14d10; Au 6s15d10
That is reasonable considering their position on the periodic chart.
Dr.Laila Al-Harbi

10. The general formula of an element un group IA is
S2p1
s1p1
The general formula of an element un group 8A is S2 S1
S2p6
s1p1
Dr.Laila Al-Harbi

11. Electron Configurations of Cations and Anions
Of Representative Elements
Na [Ne]3s1
Na+ [Ne]
Atoms lose electrons so that cation has a noble-gas outer electron configuration.
Ca [Ar]4s2
Ca2+ [Ar]
Al [Ne]3s23p1
Al3+ [Ne]
H 1s1
H- 1s2 or [He]
Atoms gain electrons so that anion has a noble-gas outer electron configuration.
F 1s22s22p5
F- 1s22s22p6 or [Ne]
O 1s22s22p4
O2- 1s22s22p6 or [Ne]
N 1s22s22p3
N3- 1s22s22p6 or [Ne]
Dr.Laila Al-Harbi

12. Cations and Anions Of Representative Elements+1 +2 +3 -3 -2 -1
Dr.Laila Al-Harbi

13. 10Na+, 10Al3+, 10F-, 10O2-, and 10N3- 11Na , 13Al , 9F , 8O , and 7N
Na+: [Ne]
Al3+: [Ne]
F-: 1s22s22p6 or [Ne]
O2-: 1s22s22p6 or [Ne]
N3-: 1s22s22p6 or [Ne]
Na+, Al3+, F-, O2-, and N3- are all isoelectronic with Ne
What neutral atom is isoelectronic with H- ?
H-: 1s2
same electron configuration as He
isoelectronic – same number of electrons
10Na+, 10Al3+, 10F-, 10O2-, and 10N3-
11Na , 13Al , 9F , 8O , and 7N
Dr.Laila Al-Harbi

14. Electron Configurations of Cations of Transition Metals
When a cation is formed from an atom of a transition metal, electrons are always removed first from the ns orbital and then from the (n – 1)d orbitals.
Mn: [Ar]4s23d5
Fe: [Ar]4s23d6
Fe2+: [Ar]4s03d6 or [Ar]3d6
Mn2+: [Ar]4s03d5 or [Ar]3d5
Fe3+: [Ar]4s03d5 or [Ar]3d5
keep in mid that most transition metals an form more than one cation and frequently the cations are not isoeletronic with the preceding noble gases
Dr.Laila Al-Harbi

15. What is the ground-state electron configuration of Mn?
4s1 3d5
4s2 3d6
4s2 3d5
What is the ground-state electron configuration of Mn+2
What is the ground-state electron configuration of Fe+2
3d6
4s1 3d5
4s2 3d6
4s2 3d5
What is the ground-state electron configuration of Fe+3
3d5
التوزيع الالكتروني للمدار الاخير لعناصر المجموعة الانتقالية هو ns2(n-1)d كما هو واضح في المثال الاول و في حال فقدها للالكترونات فانها تفقد الالكترونات أولا من المدار s ( كما في المثال الثاني و الثالث) و اذا كانوا أكثر من 2 فانها تفقد من الباقي من d كما هو واضح في المثال الاخير .... و يمكنك القيام بهذا لجميع الذرات
Dr.Laila Al-Harbi

16. Gallium element is found in the periodic table in
(a) period 3, group 1B
(b) period 3A, group 4
(c) period 4, group 1A
(d) period 4, group 3A
Answer (d)
Dr.Laila Al-Harbi

17. Titanium (Ti) element is found in the periodic table in (a) s-block
(b) P-block
(c) d-block
(d) f-block
The 15th element
in the period 4 is
Dr.Laila Al-Harbi

18. Which of the following species is isoelectronic with Cl- (a) F-
(b) O2-
(c) K+
(d) Na+
Answer: (c)
Dr.Laila Al-Harbi

19. Which of the following are have the same number of electrons (isoelectronic)?5. 1. 2. 3. 4.
None of the above

20. Example 8.1 p328
An atom of a certain element has 15 electrons. Without consulting a periodic table, answer the following questions:
(a) What is the ground-state electron configuration of this element?
1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p3
(b) How should be element be classified?
Period 3, group 5A
The element is representative element.
(c) Is the element diamagnetic or paramagnetic
paramagnetic
Valence electrons
3s p3

21. Periodic Variation in Physical Properties
Effective nuclear charge شحنه النواه الفعالة
Atomic Radius نصف القطر الذري
Ionic Radius نصف القطر الايوني
Ionization Energy طاقة التأين
Electron Affinity الألفة الالكترونية
Electronegativity السالبية الكهربية

22. 8.3 Periodic Variation in Physical Properties
Effective nuclear charge
Atomic Radius
Ionic Radius
lower effective charge on nucleus
• inner electrons shield outer electrons from nucleus
• shielding effect of electrons reduces the attraction between the
nucleus and the electrons
• repulsive forces between electrons offset the attractive forces
الشحنة النووية الفعالة: هي الشحنة الموجبة التي تشعر بها الالكترونات الموجودة في تلك الذرة وخاصة في المستوى الأخير للذرة.
Dr.Laila Al-Harbi

23. Effective nuclear charge (Zeff) is the “positive charge” felt by an electron.
Zeff = Z - s
0 < s < Z (s = shielding constant)
Zeff  Z – number of inner or core electrons
Zeff
Core Z
Radius Na Mg Al Si 11 12 13 14 10 1 2 3 4
186
160
143
132
Within a Period
as Zeff increases
radius decreases
decreases
Dr.Laila Al-Harbi

24. Increasing Zeff
increasing Z (nuclear charge)
Increasing n increases the shielding effect
Decreasing Zeff

25. The atomic radius
The atomic radius is ½ the distance between the 2 nuclei of the adjacent atoms.
Atomic radius - a number of physical properties of elements are related to the size of an atom
Atomic radius, in general, decreases as we move from left to right in a row of the periodic table (a Period ).
Atomic radius increases from top to bottom in a family or group.
The ionic radius is the radius of anions and Cations
Dr.Laila Al-Harbi

26. Dr.Laila Al-Harbi

27. Decreasing atomic radius
increasing Z increases the effective nuclear charge so the added valence electron is more strongly attracted by the nucleus so atom size shrinks
n increases so atomic radius increases
Increasing atomic radius

28. Within a group atomic radius increase
Within a Period atomic radius decreases
Within a group atomic radius increase
Dr.Laila Al-Harbi

29. Example 8.2 p332
Referring to a periodic table, arrange the following atoms in order of increasing atomic radius: P , Si , N
increasing … small to large
( small) N < P < Si (large)
arrange the following atoms in order of decreasing radius: C , Li, Be
decreasing … large to small
(large) Li > Be > C (small)
Dr.Laila Al-Harbi

30. ionic radius is the radius of anions and cations
Anions>>gain electrons >>> ionic radius increase because the nuclear charge remain the same but the repulsion resulting from the additional electrons enlarges the domain of the electron
Cations… lose electron …ionic radius decrease because removing one or more electron from an atom reduces electron-electron repulsion but the nuclear charge remains the same so the electron clouds shrinks , and the cation is smaller than atom
Cation is always smaller than atom from which it is formed.
Anion is always larger than atom from which it is formed.
Dr.Laila Al-Harbi

31. Atom Anion ionic radius increase Cation Atom ionic radius decrease
Dr.Laila Al-Harbi

32. Cations is smaller than anions ( 10Na+< 10F-)
Isoelectronic ions
Cations is smaller than anions ( 10Na+< 10F-)
The greater effective nuclear charge of 10Na+results in smaller radius.
Isoelectronic cations
10Al+3< 10Mg+2 < 10Na+
Isoelectronic anions
10F- < 10O-2 < 10N-3
Dr.Laila Al-Harbi

33. ionic radius increase
Dr.Laila Al-Harbi

34. Example 8.3 For each of the following pair ,indicate which is larger
A) 10F- ,10N-3
10N-3
B) 10Mg+2 , 18Ca+2
18Ca+2
C) Fe+2 , Fe+3
Fe+2
For each of the following pair ,indicate which is smaller
A) 18K+ ,2Li+
2 Li+
B) 10N-3 , 18P-3
10N-3
C) Au+ , Au+3
Au+3
Dr.Laila Al-Harbi

35. Order the following according to increasing atomic/ionic radius.
N3– Li+ C O2–
C < Li+ < O2– < N3–
N3– < O2– < C < Li+
Li+ < C < N3– < O2–
Li+ < C < O2– < N3–
ايونات من مجموعات مختلفه؟
الكاتيونات اصغر من الانيونات
كاتيونات: الاصغر ذو الشحنه الموجبه الاكبر
انيونات : الاصغر ذو الشحنه السالبه الاصغر

36. Ionization energy I1 < I2 < I3
Ionization energy (IE) is the minimum energy (kJ/mol) required to remove an electron from a gaseous atom in its ground state.
The higher ionization energy, the more difficult it is to remove the electrons.
The first ionization energy is the amount of energy required to remove the 1st electron from an atom in the gaseous state.
I1 + X (g) X+(g) + e-
I2 + X (g) X2+(g) + e-
I3 + X (g) X3+(g) + e-
I1 first ionization energy
I2 second ionization energy
I3 third ionization energy
I1 < I2 < I3
Dr.Laila Al-Harbi

37. The higher ionization energy,
the more difficult is to remove
the electrons.

38. Variation of the First Ionization Energy with Atomic Number
A larger effective nuclear charge more tightly held outer electron, higher first ionization energy.
He has the highest first ionization energy of all the elements.
Filled n=1 shell
Filled n=2 shell
Filled n=3 shell
Filled n=4 shell
Filled n=5 shell

39. Increasing First IE (I1)
increasing Z increases the effective nuclear charge so the added valence electron is more strongly attracted by the nucleus and harder to remove electrons
n increases so the Zeff decreases and easier
Decreasing First IE I1
to remove electrons

40. The first IE increase from left to right in period.
When electron is removed from atom, repulsion among the remaining electrons decrease, because nuclear charge remains constant. More energy is needed to remove another electron from the positively charged ion.
The IE for nonmetal is higher than metal , IE for metalloid fall between metals and nonmetals.
The first IE increase from left to right in period.
But there is some exceptions
Group 2A (ns2 ) higher than 3A (ns2 np1) in the same period
Example (Be & B)
B) Group 5A (ns2 np3) higher than 6A (ns2 np4) in the same period
Example (N & O)

41. Some irregularities (Exceptions) of Ionization Energy
1A < 3A < 2A < 4A < 6A < 5A < 7A < 8A √
Increasing First Ionization Energy
Decreasing First Ionization Energy

43. Example 8.4 (a) p340:
Which atom should have a smaller first ionization energy: oxygen or sulphur?
Solution:
O & S are in group 6A
O: [He] 2s2 2p4
S: [Ne] 3s2 3p4
The valence electrons in sulphur are farther ابعد from the nucleus → removing of them is easier
Thus: I1 (S) < I1 (O)
Increasing First Ionization Energy
Decreasing First Ionization Energy

44. Example 8.4
Which atom should have a higher second ionization energy (Li or Be)
Li (2s1) < Be (2s2 ) … first ionization energy
Li+ (1s2) > Be+ (2s1 ) … second ionization energy
Because 1s electrons shield 2s electrons much more effectively than they shield each other , we predict that it should be easier to remove a 2s electron from Be+ than to remove a 1s electron from Li+
Increasing First Ionization Energy
Decreasing First Ionization Energy
Add periodic table here, if possible.

45. Electron affinity
هي كمية الطاقة الممتصة عند إضافة إلكترون لذرة غازية متعادلة لتكوين أيون غازي بشحنة مقدارها -1. وتصبح شحنتها سالبة عند انطلاق الطاقة.
Electron affinity is the negative of the energy change that occurs when an electron is accepted by an atom in the gaseous state to form an anion.
X (g) + e X-(g)
F (g) + e X-(g)
O (g) + e O-(g)
DH = -328 kJ/mol
EA = +328 kJ/mol
DH = -141 kJ/mol
EA = +141 kJ/mol
The higher electron affinity, the greater affinity to accept the electron
Dr.Laila Al-Harbi

46. Increasing Electron affinity
increasing Z increases the effective nuclear charge so the more electron acceptance and greater electron affinity
n increases so the Zeff decreases and less electron acceptance
Decreasing Electron affinity

47. Highest Electron affinity is for halogen
Lowest Electron affinity is for group IA
Dr.Laila Al-Harbi

48. The EA increase from left to right in period.
The EA for nonmetal is higher than metal , EA for metalloid fall between metals and nonmetals.
The EA increase from left to right in period.
But there is some exceptions
A) Group 2A (ns2 ) lower than 1A (ns1 ) in the same period
B) Group 5A (ns2 np3) lower than 4A (ns2 np2) in the same period
Noble gases have the lowest electron affinities
The electron affinity of (F) is lower than that for the (Cl)
8A < 2A < 1A < 3A < 5A < 4A < 6A < 7A

49. Chapter 8 : Electron Affinity
>
>

50. Q: Which choice correctly lists the elements in order of decreasing electron affinity?
من الأكبر إلى الأصغر
O, Cl, B, C
O, Cl, C, B
Cl, O, C, B
Cl, O, B, C
Increasing Electron affinity
Decreasing Electron affinity
Exceptions?? No
Apply the rule of the period until you find a group apply the rule of the group
Cl > O > C >B