1. Primary vs. Secondary Sources
Primary sources
Describe original research conducted by the authors of the article.
Methods are described
Data are presented.
Generally have introduction, materials & methods, results, discussion, and literature cited sections.
Secondary sources
Summarize the results of primary research articles.
A review article.

2. Introduction section
Background information necessary to understand the research topic
Justification of the necessity of the research
The research objectives, or purpose, at the end of the introduction section.

3. Answer the following for the Introduction section
What do you think is the most important reason given for why the research is necessary?
What do you feel are the 3 most important pieces of background information given, and why?
Did others at your table choose similar or different pieces of information?
Where do you find the research objectives? Summarize the research objectives.

4. Examples of research objective statements
Hofmann writing guide: “In this study, we expressed the sea urchin protein bindin in E. coli in order to isolate it in large amounts for functional studies. The expression vector developed to accomplish this could also be used for future site-directed mutagenesis experiments.”
Classmate: “In this study, we investigated the effects of phosphorus level in the presence and absence of buckthorn.”

5. Methods section Description of the methods, so that
readers understand how the research objectives were tested
someone else could repeat the research.
In an ecological paper, the methods section always begins with a “Study site description.”

6. Answer the following for the Methods section
List three important pieces of information provided about the study sites(s). Do you think that anything important is left out, or not?
For the second paragraph…
Name two materials or pieces of equipment used. Is there a separate section to list “materials” or are materials and equipment simply mentioned within the text?
How much detail is included? Is it more or less detail than you typically include in a lab notebook entry?
Write a few sentences that summarize the methods for your study, taking care to avoid including unnecessary information.

7. Results section Presents the research results
without discussing what the results mean
Data is presented in table and/or graph format
Headings appear above tables.
Captions appear below figures.
Content of each table and/or graph is summarized in the text,
so that the “main gist” of the data could be understood without referring to that table or graph.

8. For Fig. 1
Write text that describes the important aspects of the data.
Imagine that the figure is displayed on a screen and that you are explaining the data orally, using a pointer.
Your written text should transcribe what you would say orally.

9. Fig. 1 Oak % mass of leaf litter remaining Cottonwood Cherry Mixed
Buckthorn
Days from start of experiment
Heneghan et al. 2002

10. Fig. 1, cont.
Now, find the part of the results section where the authors explain the data in Fig. 1.
How does what you wrote compare to what they wrote?
Did they include something you omitted, or vice-versa?

11. Discussion section Gives a scientific explanation for the data.
Compares the data to previously published research.
Discusses the implications of the results.
Might also give suggestions for future research studies, based upon a trend in the data that needs further examination.

12. Discussion
The discussion should be the longest section- it is the section to which readers pay the most attention.
What scientific explanations are given for the data? Summarize three points given by the authors.
Choose one citation in the discussion and summarize the importance of what the authors write about those data.
Note: Are there any vague statements such as, “Further sampling or analysis is needed?”

13. Acknowledgements section
Authors thank those who
provided equipment or facilities, access to sample sites, etc.
helped with planning the research, collecting samples or data, etc.
read drafts of the article and made suggestions for improvement
Paid for the research!

14. Acknowledgements
10. Who paid for this research?

15. Literature Cited Use correct format
When you cite sources throughout the text of your paper.
In the literature cited section.
Use CSE (name-year) style, as described in McMillan, Chapter 6.

16. Citations 11. Within text of paper
How are single-author papers cited?
How are papers with 2 authors cited?
How are papers with 3 or more authors cited?
Use correct format to write the full citation for Panzer & Schwartz (2000). Use CSE style or copy the style of a journal article cited at the end of Panzer & Swartz (2000).

17. Abstract
Short summary of the research paper. Must summarize most important information from the following 4 sections.
Introduction
Methods
Results
Discussion
Even though it appears at the beginning of a research paper, it is written last!

18. Abstract example 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

19. Assignment: write an abstract for Heneghan et al
Assignment: write an abstract for Heneghan et al. (2002): 300 words maximum Due: Mon. Mar, 27 (post on D2L)
Content: Summarize the most important aspects of introduction, methods, results, and discussion (5 pts)
Contains 1-2 sentences summarizing introduction
Contains 1-2 sentences summarizing methods
Contains 2-4 sentences summarizing results
Contains 1-2 sentences summarizing discussion
Quality of writing (3 pts)
Adequate flow from one section to the next
Grammatical mistakes are absent; sentences are structured correctly
Text is clear; ideas flow logically

20. Abstract guidelines
Includes ideas from all the sections, including the introduction, methods, results, and discussion sections
The abstract should flow smoothly and tell the main story of the whole paper in 300 words or less
Although it appears first, it is written last. It cannot be written until the whole paper is finished
Remember to include the common and scientific name (properly written) of the study organism/s.