1. The Literature Review 3 edition
Six Steps To Success
Lawrence A. Machi
Brenda T. McEvoy

2. 4 Step Four: Survey the Literature
Building the Argument of Discovery
In Step 3 we learned that searching the literature consists of collecting the pertinent data about the research topic. Step 4, Survey of the Literature, develops the evidence and argument using the data collected from Step 3 to answer the question, “What is known about the topic?” This session discusses how to survey the literature and builds the discovery argument.
Surveying consists of three tasks, which we will review in this presentation.
The literature survey locates, examines, and assesses the field’s prior knowledge about the subject of study. Surveying begins with assembling the information from a literature search. It then examines the assembled information to create patterns of evidence—the findings. The survey process concludes by building the findings into the discovery argument, which describes what is known about the topic under study.

3. Page reference: 84,85.
Speak to the slide. Emphasize the concept that the survey of literature develops the discovery argument that answers the question “what is known about the topic?” It locates, examines, and critically assesses the field’s prior knowledge on the subject of study.

4. The Literature Survey Process Task Organizer
Page reference: 86,87.
Figure 4.2, the literature survey tally matrix, lays out the steps and tasks required to complete the literature survey. The matrix will be a reference for the remainder of this chapter. It is important to comment here that the matrix is to be used as a mental organizer or as an advanced organizer, and not as a type of Excel file. When examining the matrix, it should become obvious that the amount of data to be documented and cataloged cannot be manipulated or adequately transposed an a tabular organization. As we noted in the text, the depiction of the matrix was selected to show the steps of the process. When we use the matrix to do a literature survey, we build storyboards for each of the tasks, and use sticky notes to document the data. As each task combines and reorganizes the data, sticky notes can be easily rearranged and re-cataloged.

5. TASK 1. ASSEMBLE THE COLLECTED DATA
Use coding for cross-referencing the source documents and the central documents. The simplest method is to assign an alphabetic code by author or text.
Use the reporting function found in software programs such as Citation, EndNote, or RefWorks. To query, search, and report while generating tally documents
Use butcher paper or large sticky notes to assemble the data using storyboard techniques to develop your findings.
Activity 1. Cataloging the Data
Page reference: 86,87,and 89.
Begin by explaining the first four columns of the data matrix that make up Task One. Refer back to the third chapter of the text for the particulars on backing and bibliographic entry. Provide examples from documenting software and the simple 3 x 5 card system. Discuss the bullet items in the right column. Refer to text for examples.

6. TASK 2. ORGANIZE THE INFORMATION
To start, examine the entries made on the tally matrix (Columns 1–3) to determine how the data fit together.
Examine the data contained on the tally matrix by key descriptor, core idea, or author to develop a picture of the data entries as evidence – by time, theme, or authors.
As evidence patterns form, document them, and stay up-to-date with your memoranda.
Develop a new coding scheme to catalog the evidence.
Enter the codes for evidence categories in Column 5 on the tally matrix. Build a code sheet as a reference for further work.
Employ a reasoning pattern to build the warrant and claim.
TASK 2. ORGANIZE THE INFORMATION
Activity 1.
Arrange information to build evidence.
Pattern the evidence to form a body to create simple claims.
Page reference: page
Explain that this activity examines and reorganizes the data collected from columns 1 through 3. Since this is a bit of a circular process, the use of sticky note technology makes it easy to play with patterns until the right themes emerge. Use the example of the jigsaw puzzle to provide a visual for this process.

7. Side-by-Side Reasoning
Reasoning Patterns
One-on-One Reasoning
R ∴ C
In this simple pattern, one reason (R) is enough to justify the conclusion (C). This one-on-one reasoning can be proven as true or false.
Side-by-Side Reasoning
R1, R2, R3, R Rn ∴ C.
A side-by-side reasoning pattern cites several data entries, all of which offer the same reason to justify the conclusion. Here is a diagram of the side-by-side pattern:
Page reference:
Speak to the slide. Refer to the reference pages for examples, if needed.

8. (R1 ∴ C1) + (C1 ∴ C2) + (C2 ∴C3) + . . . (Cn-1) ∴ Cn
Reasoning Patterns
Chain Reasoning
(R1 ∴ C1) + (C1 ∴ C2) + (C2 ∴C3) (Cn-1) ∴ Cn
Serial in nature, it begins by citing one or more reasons that justify a conclusion. It uses a one-on-one reasoning pattern as its foundation. The conclusion of the first pattern then becomes the evidence for the second conclusion. This line of logic continues until the final conclusion has been warranted. Notice that this pattern forms as if you were making a daisy chain
Joint Reasoning
(R1 + R2) ∴C
In this case, the reasons stipulated cannot stand on their own but, when taken together, provide the necessary reasoning to warrant the conclusion.
Neither R1 nor R2 alone provides enough justification to form the conclusion. However, R1 and R2 together allow a logically drawn conclusion.
Page reference:
Speak to the slide. Refer to the reference pages for examples, if needed.

9. Activity 2. Organizing the Information and Building Claims
Begin by reviewing each data grouping by evidence category. Examine how the data fit together. Then, apply the correct reasoning pattern to each evidence group.
Record the reasoning pattern (warranting scheme) for each data group in Column 6 of your tally matrix.
Find the conclusion deduced from each of the organized patterns of evidence. Write it as a declarative sentence. This is your claim.
In Column 7, write the claim or assertion created by the evidence.
After completing your claim statements, evaluate the acceptability of each claim. Is it on point, powerful, supportable, and clearly stated?
Record your claim evaluation in Column 8.
Page reference: page 94.
Speak to the slide. Point out to the students that when the information in Column 8 is provided, they have successfully developed the simple arguments necessary to develop the evidence for the discovery argument. They are documenting what we know about the topic in question.

10. TASK 3. ANALYZE THE PATTERNS OF THE DATA
The purpose of Task 3 of the literature survey is to analyze the simple claims you developed in Column 7 of the tally matrix into a complex argument.
Analysis begins by reviewing the simple claims created in Task 2 to discover their logical pattern.
Critically analyze the evidence and claims to tell the story of how the data fits together.
Using the argument schemes as guides, you can either outline or map the argument.
The result is a complex argument that serves as the discovery argument.
Page reference: page 96.
Speak to the slide. When discussing the fourth bullet on this slide, inform the students that these argument schemes are complex, and will be discussed in the following slides.

11. Complex Reasoning Divergent Reasoning
R1, R2, R3, R Rn ∴ CA versus R1, R2, R3, R Rn ∴ CB.
This pattern depicts an academic debate. Divergent reasoning is an offshoot of the basic side-by-side reasoning pattern:
Cite several expert opinions, research studies, statistics, expert testimony to build an evidentiary pattern for one side of the question. Next, cite another set of data to show the opposing view.
Use this pattern to depict authors’ positions, research findings, or theories found in the evidentiary data that are in direct contradiction.
By mapping the opposing data, you can graph the vantage point and the focus of each position to discover the strong and weak points for each side of the debate.
Comparative Reasoning
R1, R2, R3, R Rn ∴ CA ^ R1, R2, R3, R Rn ∴ CB.
This scheme shows connections between groups of data. Here you examine likenesses and differences in each group by comparing and contrasting the evidence and claims.
As with side-by-side reasoning, cite expert opinions, research studies, statistics, and expert testimony to build an evidentiary pattern for the first claim group (A). The set of data from the next claim group (B) is also presented.
Look at the differences and likenesses between the data , and compare and contrast the two side-by-side arguments.
Page reference:96-98.
Speak to slide. Refer to reference pages for further explanation on the description of convergent and comparative mapping.

12. The Discovery Argument: Putting It All Together
Page reference: 98,99
The complex argument provides the framework for understanding how the discovery argument is made. Figure 4.11 shows how the complex argument is built. Data are assembled in Task 1 and categorized into main ideas or elements in Task 2. These become the evidence for a simple claim(s). In Task 3, the patterns of the data are organized and analyzed to become the premises for the major claim(s) of the complex argument. The warranting schemes provided in this chapter are the logics used to legitimately conclude the major claim(s). In the case of a literature review, the major claim(s) answers the question, “What is known about the subject of study?”

13. The Discovery Argument: An Example
Page reference:
Refer to the text explanation for this example.

14. Task 3 Activity 1. Mapping the Discovery Argument
Review the claims posted in Column 8.
Reorganize these claims using complex reasoning patterns.
Regroup the corresponding arguments for each claim by these patterns.
Now record the reordered claims, stating them as premises in Column 9.
Analyze the premises made in Column 9. Determine the reasoning pattern that will fit as the warranting scheme for the complex claim (thesis) of the discovery argument.
State the warrant scheme in Column 10.
Write the thesis statement for the discovery argument in Column 11.
Activity 2. Analyzing the Argument
Once you have completed the literature survey and mapped and outlined the argument for what is known, evaluate the argument’s soundness .
Evaluate each simple argument.
Evaluate the complex argument. (see exercise 4.2)
Page reference: 101.
Speak to slide.