1. CHAPTER 40 INTRODUCTION TO ANIMAL FORM AND FUNCTION
Prepared by
Brenda Leady, University of Toledo
Copyright (c) The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.

2. All animal cells share similarities in the ways in which they
Exchange materials with their surroundings
Synthesize complex molecules
Duplicate themselves

4. Tissues Specialized cells of a given types cluster together
4 categories

5. Muscle tissue Cells specialized to … 3 types
_____________ – attached to bone or exoskeleton for locomotion, voluntary control
_____________ – surrounds hollow tubes and cavities for propulsion of contents, involuntary control
_____________ – only in the heart, involuntary control

7. Nervous tissue
Initiate and conduct electrical signals from one part of the animal’s body to another
Electrical signals produced in one nerve cell may stimulate or inhibit other nerve cells to

9. Epithelial tissues Sheets of _________________cells that
Specialized to ___________ and _________ or ____________
Rest on basal lamina or basement membrane
Can function as selective barriers

11. Connective tissues Includes …
Form an extracellular matrix around cells
Provides …

13. Organs
Organ system – different organs work together to perform an overall function
Organ systems frequently work together – nervous and endocrine system
Spatial arrangement of organs into organ systems part of overall body plan
Body plan controlled by highly conserved family of genes with homologs in all animals

15. Organ Development and Function Are Controlled by Homeotic Genes
Homeotic genes – family of ancient highly conserved genes found in all animals
Determine timing and spatial patterning of the anteroposterior body axis during development
In vertebrates known as Hox genes
Important role in determining where organs form
Hox genes also important for growth, development and function of organs in adults

16. Body fluids 2 main compartments
_________________– inside cells
_________________– outside cells
______________ – fluid portion of blood
______________– fluid between cells
Separate in closed systems
Hemolymph intermingles to fluids in many inverts
Intracellular and extracellular fluid can be very different in solute composition

18. Movement of water Plasma membranes tend to …
Fluid moves readily between compartments
Swollen or shrunken cells do not operate well
Can happen when cells exposed to more dilute (hypoosmotic) or more concentrated (hyperosmotic) extracellular fluids

20. Movement of solutes
Movement of a solute down its concentration gradient
No carrier or ATP required
Only lipid soluble molecules
Facilitated diffusion – passive
Active transport

21. Structure and function
Key theme is structure determines function
Compare respiratory systems of insect and mammal
Structural similarities suggest similar function

23. All organs that mediate diffusion or absorption have an …
Increased space requirements avoided by shape changes
SA/V – surface area to volume ratio

25. Homeostasis
_____________ – maintain same fluid composition as environment – cheaper
_____________ – internal composition of fluids different from environment – more expensive
Animal can be both with respect to different variables

26. No physiological function is constant for very long, which is why we call them “variables”
Normally, blood sugar (glucose) remains at fairly steady and predictable levels in any healthy individual
After a meal the level of glucose in your blood can increase quickly
If you skip a meal, your blood sugar level may drop slightly
Homeostatic mechanisms restore blood glucose to normal levels in the blood

28. Homeostatic control systems
______________ – monitors particular variable
______________ – compares signals from the sensor to a baseline set point
______________ – compensates for deviations between actual value and set point
Example – body temperature in mammals

30. Feedback Fundamental feature of homeostasis
Major way disturbances are minimized

31. Variable being regulated brings about responses that move the variable in the opposite direction
Decrease in body temperature leads to responses that increase body temperature
May occur at organ, cellular or molecular level

33. Far less common
Accelerates a process
Reinforces the direction of the change
Birth in mammals

35. Feedforward regulation
Animal’s body begins preparing for a change in some variable before it occurs
Anticipatory
Speeds up homeostatic responses and minimizes deviations from the set point
Many result from or are modified by learning

37. Pavlov Demonstrated the Relationship Between Learning and Feedforward Processes
Demonstrated that feedforward processes associated with digestion could be conditioned to an irrelevant stimulus
Used ticking metronome (not ringing bell)
Conditioned stimulus by itself can elicit increased salivation
Other sounds and stimuli also worked
Conditioned response not permanent

39. Local homeostatic responses
Some homeostatic responses may be highly localized
_______________________– molecules released into interstitial fluid to act on nearby cells
_______________________ released from one nerve cell travel to an adjacent nerve cell
In contrast, hormones are chemical messengers produced in a gland, secreted into the blood, and act on distant cells