Chapter 9 Local Government

Chapter 9 Local Government
American Civics 4/19/2018 Chapter 9 Local Government Section 1: Units of Local Government Section 2: Town, Township, and Village Governments Section 3: City Government Section 4: How Governments Work Together State & Local Government Powers not granted to the federal government are reserved for states and the people, which are divided between state and local governments. Most Americans have more daily contact with their state and local governments than with the federal government. Police departments, libraries, and schools — not to mention driver's licenses and parking tickets — usually fall under the oversight of state and local governments. Each state has its own written constitution, and these documents are often far more elaborate than their federal counterpart. The Alabama Constitution, for example, contains 310,296 words — more than 40 times as many as the U.S. Constitution. Local Government Local governments generally include two tiers: counties, also known as boroughs in Alaska and parishes in Louisiana, and municipalities, or cities/towns. In some states, counties are divided into townships. Municipalities can be structured in many ways, as defined by state constitutions, and are called, variously, townships, villages, boroughs, cities, or towns. Various kinds of districts also provide functions in local government outside county or municipal boundaries, such as school districts or fire protection districts. Municipal governments — those defined as cities, towns, boroughs (except in Alaska), villages, and townships — are generally organized around a population center and in most cases correspond to the geographical designations used by the United States Census Bureau for reporting of housing and population statistics. Municipalities vary greatly in size, from the millions of residents of New York City and Los Angeles to the 287 people who live in Jenkins, Minnesota. Chapter 9

Section 1: Units of Local Government
American Civics 4/19/2018 Section 1: Units of Local Government The Main Idea Local governments have grown as the country has grown. As Americans settled in rural communities, towns, cities, and suburbs, they set up local governments. Reading Focus How are local governments established, and why are they needed? How is county government organized, and what are the main purposes of each level of county government? How do local and state governments work together? Municipalities generally take responsibility for parks and recreation services, police and fire departments, housing services, emergency medical services, municipal courts, transportation services (including public transportation), and public works (streets, sewers, snow removal, signage, and so forth). Whereas the federal government and state governments share power in countless ways, a local government must be granted power by the state. In general, mayors, city councils, and other governing bodies are directly elected by the people. Chapter 9

Establishing Local Governments
Section 1: Units of Local Government Establishing Local Governments Are established by and given powers from the state governments. Municipalities can include a state’s cities, towns, villages, and boroughs Provide services for citizens. Maintain roads, running water, sewage systems, sidewalks, street cleaning, and trash collection. provide education and keep records State legislature Largest type Main job of local government & fire protection

municipality city roads, street cleaning, trash collection, electricity, running water, sewage systems

American Civics 4/19/2018 Section 1: Units of Local Government The Main Idea Local governments have grown as the country has grown. As Americans settled in rural communities, towns, cities, and suburbs, they set up local governments. Reading Focus How are local governments established, and why are they needed? How is county government organized, and what are the main purposes of each level of county government? How do local and state governments work together? COUNTY GOVERNMENT. County governments in the United States function as local administrative arms within the states. In the early 2000s the National Association of Counties recognized 3,066 U.S. counties. All states except Connecticut and Rhode Island have functioning county governments. Alaska and Louisiana call their equivalent political units boroughs and parishes respectively. Originally counties were placed so that a county seat would be no more than a day's journey for everyone within the county borders. However, contemporary U.S. counties share no equivalence in either geographic size or population. Arlington County, Virginia, is 67 square kilometers while the North Slope Borough of Alaska is 227,559 square kilometers. Loving County, Texas, has 140 residents while Los Angeles County, California, has 9.2 million residents. County governments perform essential administrative functions such as registering voters, supervising elections, keeping records, providing police protection, and administrating health and welfare services. Origins and Early History American county governments are historically rooted in the English shire. Shires were governmental units created in the ninth century By the kingdom of England to serve as local administrative arms of the crown. The shires were renamed "counties" after the Norman Conquest in 1066, but retained their function. Government in the English county operated under a plural executive. The shire-reeve, or "sheriff" shared power with the justices of the peace. Chapter 9

County Governments: Section 1: Units of Local Government
American Civics 4/19/2018 Section 1: Units of Local Government County Governments: The highest level & largest of local government division of state government formed to carry out state laws, collect taxes, and supervise elections in a single small area Louisiana- parishes, Alaska- boroughs In some areas in a few states, county and city governments are combined into one legislative body The American colonies incorporated the county as a form of local government. The first colonial counties were established in Virginia in Eight counties served as administrative districts for the commonwealth. The colonial governor appointed multiple officials to a county court that governed the counties. The sheriff and several justices of the peace shared executive power. The other colonies established county governments shortly after Virginia. The counties in the southern colonies modeled themselves on Virginia, while northern colonies developed differently. These colonies did adopt a plural form of county governance, but the county had reduced responsibilities due to the predominance of already existing towns and cities. New York and New Jersey even went so far as to establish city and town officials as representatives on the county boards of supervisors. Northern counties were the first to elect rather than appoint county officials. After American independence, counties simply be-came administrative arms of the states rather than the crown. Executive power remained diffused and the North-South distinctions in the scope of county responsibility also remained. The "middle" states and the new northwestern states created counties that were hybrids of the northern and southern models. Counties were the first form of local government in these states, yet these states lacked a landed aristocracy. The most influential case of this type is Pennsylvania, which in 1682 established three county commissions with commissioners elected "at large" By the citizens of each county. Like the southern colonies, Pennsylvania established counties as the predominant form of local government. Like the northern colonies, the local officials were elected By the citizenry rather than selected by and from the landed elite. This Pennsylvania model of county government spread to western states such as Ohio, Michigan, Wisconsin, and Illinois. By the 1830s most states had established elected county boards. Chapter 9

Section 1: Units of Local Government County Government:
American Civics 4/19/2018 Section 1: Units of Local Government County Government: Board County Commissioners are elected by voters and forms the legislative body. The county board supervises elections; enforces state laws; collects taxes; and provides health and welfare services, libraries, roads, and schools. County officials include sheriff and deputies, county clerk, treasurer, auditor, coroner, and district attorney. Some counties have elected a county manager and a county executive. Elected- Chief law enforcement officer of a county The U.S. Constitution makes no mention of local government. Unlike the states, which enjoy a federal governing relationship enshrined in the constitution, counties are part of a unitary governing relationship within the various states. The U.S. Constitution established a federal system whereby governmental power was divided between the national government and the states. The unitary system that controls local government vests all power in the state governments. Counties exist merely as agents of the states and enjoy only those powers expressly given to them By the state government. The relationship is best summarized in the 1845 U.S. Supreme Court case State of Mary land v. Baltimore and Ohio Railroad. The court held that "counties are nothing more than certain portions of the territory into which the state is divided for the more convenient exercise of powers of government.“ For most of U.S. history the core function of county government was to fulfill the administrative mandates of their respective states. This included "housekeeping" functions such as assessing and collecting property taxes, registering voters and administering elections, providing law enforcement, prosecuting criminals, administering a jail, recording deeds and other legal records, maintaining roads, keeping vital statistics, and controlling communicable diseases. Urbanization (and suburbanization) brought to highly populated counties additional government functions such as the administration of mass transportation, airports, water supply and sewage disposal, hospitals, building and housing codes, public housing, stadiums, recreation and cultural programs, libraries, and consumer protection. Counties have also played a major administrative role in welfare programs such as Temporary Assistance for Needy Families (TANF) and Medicaid, and in state mandated environmental programs. The number of functional roles that a county government assumes is highly dependent on the population of the county. While nearly all counties assume the traditional "housekeeping" roles identified earlier, only the counties with populations over one million tend to assume all of the roles identified above. Arrests lawbreakers and carries out the orders of the county courts Keeps a record of all the decisions and actions of a county board Chapter 9

American Civics 4/19/2018 Chapter 9
A much smaller percentage of U.S. counties (thirteen percent) elect an executive. This system has separate elected legislative and executive branches of government. The executive is the formal head and spokesperson of the county, prepares the budget, hires and fires department heads, administers the policies enacted By the council and often has veto power over legislation. Finally, less than one percent of U.S. counties have merged with cities. Denver, Philadelphia, and San Francisco are simultaneously cities and counties. The first such consolidation was New Orleans and Orleans Parish, Louisiana, in Philadelphia, San Francisco, and New York were also consolidated in the nineteenth century. Many more mergers have been proposed than have been approved By the voters. In the twentieth century local voters rejected roughly eighty percent of merger proposals. The reform with the most potential for serious change in county government is not structural, but constitutional. "Home rule" reforms to state constitutions allow counties to create and revise their own charters. Under this system counties could potentially exercise a high degree of discretionary authority. Home rule can be thought of as a shift from a unitary to a limited federal system within a state. For counties, this shift means moving from a government that simply enforces state laws, to a government that passes laws of its own. Progressive Era reformers pushed for home rule provisions and found some success. The first home rule charter was adopted by Los Angeles County, California, in By the early 2000s more than half of the U.S. states had some provision for county home rule. These provisions range from simply structural home rule (the ability of a county to determine its system of government) to functional home rule, which allows counties to undertake any function unless it is prohibited by state law. The local public has been reluctant to adopt home rule. Less than three percent of U.S. counties have actually created and approved their own charters. Chapter 9

county manager supervises county business and services;
American Civics 4/19/2018 county sheriff county manager supervises county business and services; county treasurer is responsible for funds; district attorney represents the state in county trials The growing functional role of county governments has not been met with increased autonomy or legislative power. The functions that county governments assume are highly determined by what the states mandate. County governments rarely legislae general ordinances in the way that city councils do. Instead, the county government's legislative power is usually limited to zoning issues and building regulations. Although county governments have a variety of organizational structures, most have a similar core of officials. The county sheriff heads police protection, serves warrants from the county courts, and runs the county jail. The coroner runs the county morgue and oversees medical investigations. The county attorney prosecutes people suspected of crimes and provides legal counsel to the county. The clerk of the court registers and keeps legal records. The county treasurer collects and disburses county funds. The election commissioner oversees voter registration and elections. Until the early twentieth century most officials derived compensation primarily from the fees and fines that the county government collected. This "fee system" of compensation was established in and protected by many state constitutions. The fee system yielded to a salary system in the Progressive Era of the 1900s under charges that fee-based compensation led to rampant corruption. The commission has historically been the predominant governing structure at the county level. The average county commission has three to five members, although the numbers range from just one to over one hundred. There is no chief executive officer on the commission. The commission shares administrative responsibility among the many members and other elected officials such as the sheriff and treasurer. The commission form of government still served as the organizational basis for 61 percent of U.S. counties in the early 2000s. A Progressive Era reform movement sought to alter the commission structure by adding a professional executive. Iredell County, North Carolina, was the first county government to adopt a council-administrator organizational form. In the early 2000s, 26 percent of U.S. counties operated under this organizational form, in which an elected county council creates policy and an appointed professional administrator carries out this policy. Chapter 9

American Civics 4/19/2018 Section 1: Units of Local Government The Main Idea Local governments have grown as the country has grown. As Americans settled in rural communities, towns, cities, and suburbs, they set up local governments. Reading Focus How are local governments established, and why are they needed? How is county government organized, and what are the main purposes of each level of county government? How do local and state governments work together? A chartered city, county or municipality is one that possesses a unique set of laws that forms the legal foundation of its local system of government. The actual legal document that articulates these laws is called a charter. Charters stand in relationship to a county, city, village or town the same way that a state constitution does to a state or a federal constitution does to a nation. They define the powers and functions of elected officials as well as the organization and procedures of local government Where do charters come from? The most common answer to this question is the states; but not all states actually allow local governments to develop and possess charters. Moreover, in the states that do allow local government charters, the significance of the charter related to local autonomy on matters of form of government and substantive policies differs widely. The main variable is the degree of local autonomy that state constitutions and state statutes legally grant a local government.[1] In some states, state laws allow local governments to adopt a charter on their own initiative, often requiring approval by local voters. In other states, a charter must be granted to a municipality by the state legislature. This may be because a municipality gains its legal status through incorporation with a state-granted charter, or because the particular municipality has lobbied the state legislature to grant it a charter allowing for variation from state statutes. These types of charters generally permit less local autonomy, and charter amendments often must be approved by the state legislature.[2] Many of the states that allow chartered local governments place restrictions on what types of local governments can adopt charters. These restrictions are often based on population and government structure. Chapter 9

Governments work together
American Civics 4/19/2018 Governments work together The duties of local government officials are usually outlined in state-approved charters. basic plan for a local government unit that defines its powers, responsibilities, and organization Can not violate state or federal laws local lawmaking bodies have the power to pass ordinances Regulations that govern a community. Local law enforcement groups, such as police departments, are responsible for enforcing both local ordinances and state laws Must comply with state and federal laws Has the force of law Chapter 9

charter ordinances Students’ answers will vary Possible answer federal, state, and local government work together to build roads and to support public education

How Local Governments Are Established Why Local Governments Are Needed
SECTION 1 Question: How are local governments established, and why are they needed? How Local Governments Are Established Why Local Governments Are Needed State governments establish local governments and grant them powers. They provide and manage services to the community.

Section 2: Town, Township, and Village Governments
The Main Idea Although counties are the largest unit of local government, they share the job of governing with other units of local government. Reading Focus Where did town government begin, and what is the purpose of the town meeting? Why did townships and special districts develop, and how does each function? Why are villages and boroughs created, and how do they operate?

Town Government Section 2: Town, Township, and Village Governments
American Civics 4/19/2018 Section 2: Town, Township, and Village Governments Town Government Town- A unit of local government , usually larger than a village and smaller than a city. Town governments began in the New England colonies. Town Meeting All Citizens meet regularly to discuss town issues a vote can be taken on each item Example of direct democracy Often held in conjunction with town elections Population growth has inhibited direct democracy. Higher populations require more local services. Get together Chapter 9

American Civics 4/19/2018 a d Chapter 9

Townships First type: developed in the Middle Atlantic states; maintained roads and schools and assisted the poor Second type: divisions of land in the Midwestern states that were developed by Congress in 1785 as part of a surveying system 6 mile square units Civil townships Today township governments have decreased in importance as many governmental responsibilities have been taken over by cities

Townships Perform many of the same governmental functions of towns
Headed by an elected chairperson/ supervisor May also have an elected board of commissioners/trustees Make rules & regulations Elected constable – enforce the laws Elected Justice of Peace- tries minor cases

controls public schools
Section 2: Town, Township, and Village Governments Special Districts Developed to serve special needs of an area The most numerous form of local government Operated by a commission School Districts Provide funds for funds for local schools Board of Education is it’s governing body Superintendent manages the district’s day-to-day operations controls public schools

c g e f school board superintendent of schools

American Civics 4/19/2018 Section 2: Town, Township, and Village Governments Villages and Boroughs rural communities Created when populations grow and need to organize They request and must be approved by the state legislature to be a self-governing municipality Collect taxes and provide local services Governed by a council with an executive (mayor) local government Government As villages in Pennsylvania are not political subdivision in and of themselves, they have no local governmental authority. Instead, they are part of, and under the authority of, their respective municipality. Villages in Pennsylvania are very often loosely defined by local residents with no definitive borders. They often represent the area of original settlement in an area. A village in Pennsylvania is a geographic area within a larger political subdivision, usually a township, although some villages are located within a borough. Often, a village is also a census-designated place, but this is not always the case. Chapter 9

b h send a request to the state legislature for approval

Where Town Government Began
SECTION 2 Question: Where did town government begin, and how has it changed? Where Town Government Began How It Has Changed Citizens used to be able to vote on issues directly, now representatives vote on issues. New England colonies

Section 3: City Government
The Main Idea A city is usually larger than a town or village. In many cities a large population is crowded into a relatively small area, which creates many challenges for city government. Reading Focus How are city governments organized under the home-rule system? What are the different forms of city government?

Home Rule Organization
American Civics 4/19/2018 Section 3: City Government Home Rule Organization Established by and receive charters from state legislatures Some cities have been granted home rule. Home rule cities write and amend its own municipal charter. Usually written by a commission, must be approved by the voters. City governments can get very big– NYC has 9,000 sanitation workers, the Los Angeles police department employs 12,500 ppl New York City has a population of 8 million – Parker, PA has 799 ppl A home rule municipality in Pennsylvania is one incorporated under its own unique charter, created pursuant to the state's Home Rule and Optional Plans Law and approved by referendum.[1] "Local governments without home rule can only act where specifically authorized by state law; home rule municipalities can act anywhere except where they are specifically limited by state law". Although many such municipalities have retained the word "Township" or "Borough" in their official names, the Pennsylvania Township and Borough Codes no longer apply to them. All three types of municipalities (cities, boroughs, and townships) may become a Home rule municipality. Philadelphia became the first home rule city of Pennsylvania in 1951. in 1922 the Pennsylvania Constitution was amended to give the legislature the right to grant cities the right to choose home rule Lebanon and State College are two examples & manage its own affairs Chapter 9

Under home rule, a city can write and amend its own municipal charter rather than receive a charter from the state.

Section 3: City Government
American Civics 4/19/2018 Section 3: City Government The Main Idea A city is usually larger than a town or village. In many cities a large population is crowded into a relatively small area, which creates many challenges for city government. Reading Focus How are city governments organized under the home-rule system? What are the different forms of city government? The Tenth Amendment to the United States Constitution makes local government a matter of state rather than federal law, with special cases for territories and the District of Columbia. As a result, the states have adopted a wide variety of systems of local government. Pennsylvania has 67 counties. With the exception of Philadelphia and Allegheny, counties are governed by three to seven county commissioners who are elected every four years; the district attorney, county treasurer, sheriff, and certain classes of judge ("judges of election") are also elected separately. Philadelphia has been a consolidated city-county since 1854 and has had a consolidated city-county government since Allegheny County has had a council/chief executive government since 2001, while still retaining its townships, boroughs and cities. Each county is divided into municipal corporations, which can be one of four types: cities, boroughs, townships, and incorporated towns. The Commonwealth does not contain any unincorporated land that is not served by a local government. However, the US Postal Service has given names to places within townships that are not incorporated separately. For instance King of Prussia is a census-designated place but has no local government of its own. It is rather contained within Upper Merion Township, governed by Upper Merion's supervisors, and considered to be a part of the township. Townships are divided into two classes, depending on their population size and density. Townships of the "First Class" have a board made up of five to fifteen commissioners who are elected either at-large or for a particular ward to four-year terms, while those of the "Second Class" have a board of three to five supervisors who are elected at-large to six-year terms. Some townships have adopted a home rule charter which allows them to choose their form of government. One example is Upper Darby Township, in Delaware County, which has chosen to have a "mayor-council" system similar to that of a borough. Boroughs in Pennsylvania are governed by a "mayor-council" system in which the mayor has only a few powers (usually that of overseeing the municipal police department, if the borough has one), while the borough council has very broad appointment and oversight. The council president, who is elected by the majority party every two years, is equivalent to the leader of a council in the United Kingdom; his or her powers operate within boundaries set by the state constitution and the borough's charter. A small minority of the boroughs have dropped the mayor-council system in favor of the council-manager system, in which the council appoints a borough manager to oversee the day-to-day operations of the borough. As in the case of townships, a number of boroughs have adopted home rule charters; one example is State College, which retains the mayor-council system that it had as a borough. Bloomsburg is the Commonwealth's only incorporated town; McCandless Township in Allegheny County calls itself a town, but it officially remains a township with a home rule charter. Cities in Pennsylvania are divided into four classes: Class 1, Class 2, Class 2A, and Class 3. Class 3 cities, which are the smallest, have either a mayor-council system or a council-manager system like that of a borough, although the mayor or city manager has more oversight and duties compared to their borough counterparts. Pittsburgh and Scranton are the state's only Class 2 and Class 2A cities respectively, and have mayors with some veto power, but are otherwise still governed mostly by their city councils. Philadelphia is the Commonwealth's only Class 1 city. It has a government similar to that of the Commonwealth itself, with a mayor with strong appointment and veto powers and a 17-member city council that has both law-making and confirmation powers. Certain types of legislation that can be passed by the city government require state legislation before coming into force. Unlike the other cities in Pennsylvania, the Philadelphia city government also has oversight of county government, and as such controls the budget for the district attorney, sheriff, and other county offices that have been retained from the county's one-time separate existence; these offices are elected for separately than those for the city government proper. Chapter 9

Forms of City Government
Section 3: City Government Forms of City Government Are larger than other local governments. Often have large populations crowded into a small area. Must deal with education, health, safety, transportation, sanitation, water supply, and fire and police protection.

Forms of City Government:
American Civics 4/19/2018 Section 3: City Government Forms of City Government: Mayor-Council Government Oldest & most common form City Council- Legislative Body City can be divided into wards Mayor- chief executive officer Weak- Mayor Plan– city council holds more power Strong- Mayor Plan- Mayor has the primary responsibility for running the city’s government. Law making The voters elect several council member at large to serve on the city council The did not want the Mayor to be too powerful Can veto bills passed by the council Chapter 9

Forms of City Government: (continued)
Section 3: City Government Forms of City Government: (continued) Commission Government—Board of commissioners passes laws and carries out the functions of government. 3-9 elected officials City’s legislative & executive body Council-Manager Government—City council passes laws and appoints the city manager, who proposes laws and appoints department heads. Begins in Texas group of elected officials who head up different city departments (for ex.- public welfare) No single executive Can be fired if not doing a good job Powers

He or she is appointed by the elected city council.
An elected city council is the lawmaking body. The mayor, elected by voters, is the city’s chief executive officer City governments can follow a weak-mayor or strong-mayor plan. Elected commissioners make and enforce laws Each commissioner oversees a specific department or need X Voters elect the city council, which is the lawmaking body. The city council appoints the city manager. city manager appoints the heads of city departments mayor-council Galveston, Texas He or she is appointed by the elected city council.

charter granted by state government
SECTION 3 Question: How are city governments established? How City Governments Are Established the state gives the city permission to write its own charter under home rule charter granted by state government

Section 4: How Governments Work Together
The Main Idea You live under three levels of government—local, state, and federal. Without cooperation among these levels, everyday life would not run smoothly. Reading Focus How do the different levels of government work together? How do governments cooperate to meet people’s needs? In what ways are different levels of government in competition?

Governments work together:
Section 4: How Governments Work Together Governments work together: Local, state, and federal governments have clearly defined powers. Each level of government has the power needed to do its job. All levels of government obey the U.S. Constitution. The federal system keeps the powers of each level clearly defined.

Governments Work Together cont. (roads)
American Civics 4/19/2018 Section 4: How Governments Work Together Governments Work Together cont. (roads) Roads were originally local projects. As the country grew, Congress voted to federally fund roads connecting the east to the west. Late 1800s—state funds first used to manage local roads Interstate highway system is a joint effort of state and federal governments. After WWII- President Eisenhower Good roads contribute to the safety and well-being of all citizens. Chapter 9

b a d building roads funding important programs d

Governments Cooperate to Serve the Public:
American Civics 4/19/2018 Section 4: How Governments Work Together Governments Cooperate to Serve the Public: Public education—funds and services from the state; schools controlled by local boards; special funds from the federal government The federal gov’t. ensures the cooperation of state & local governments by providing funds to help them implement important programs grants-in-aid- federal funds given to state and local governments for specific projects The government receiving the funds must meet standards & conditions, also provide funds of its own Subject to supervision by the federal government Ex. Cleaning up pollution in a river that runs through the city Chapter 9

Governments Cooperate to Serve the Public (cont.):
American Civics 4/19/2018 Section 4: How Governments Work Together Governments Cooperate to Serve the Public (cont.): block grants- Funds given by the federal government to state and local governments Given for broadly defined purposes State & local governments develop & carry out the programs State & local governments must establish a spending plan and report expenditures to the federal government. Chapter 9

Governments Cooperate to Serve the Public (cont.):
American Civics 4/19/2018 Section 4: How Governments Work Together Governments Cooperate to Serve the Public (cont.): More way they cooperate Businesses must obey state laws & require good business practices State health regulations protect people eating local restaurants Education requirements Industry regulations Banking regulations State licensing boards Purpose is to ensure communities have qualified professional workers Chapter 9

c a c supporting public education ensuring the quality of life of citizens

Governments in Competition:
American Civics 4/19/2018 Section 4: How Governments Work Together Governments in Competition: The levels of government compete with one another in several ways including; Tax Dollars Attracting industry Chapter 9

SECTION 4 Question: Why did the federal government become involved in the building of roads? The United States expanded. The federal government became involved in the planning, building, and maintenance of the highway system to facilitate the movement of people and goods. Highways were needed to connect the East and the West. The automobile necessitated a complex system of national highways.

Chapter 9 Wrap-Up 1. How are local governments established?
2. What are the origins of the county system of government in the United States? 3. Explain where town government began and how it has changed over time. 4. When are villages and boroughs created, and how do they operate? 5. Define the term city and explain the services city governments provide for the residents. 6. How do city governments get their power and structure? 7. In which areas do the three levels of government—local, state, and federal—cooperate? 8. What difficulties could occur if different levels of government did not cooperate?

Chapter 9 Local Government

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