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Terminologies for Research Methodology
Business Research Methods
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Terminologies Concept Construct Proposition Operational Definition
Variable Law Hypothesis Model Research problem Theory Paradigm
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Concept A bundle of meaning or characteristics associated with certain events, objects, conditions, situations, and the like Concepts are created by classifying and categorizing objects or events that have common characteristics beyond the single observation -- Cooper & Schindler
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Concept A generalized idea about a class of objects, attributes, occurrences, or processes that has been given a name Concept abstract reality Concepts are our building blocks -- Zikmund A (theoretical) concept must be tied to observable operations that any person can observe or perform. --McBurney
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Sources of Concepts Concepts have been developed over time through shared usage Different society may use many of the same concepts Some concepts are unique to a particular culture Concepts can be borrowing from other fields Strategic weapon, gravitation, distance, threshold, velocity Borrowing is not always practical, so we need to Adopt new meanings for words Develop new label for concepts
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Concepts Concepts Are Abstractions of Reality Abstract Level
Empirical Level Observations of Objects and Events (Reality)
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Concept Expresses an abstraction formed by generalization from particulars Examples Weight, mass, energy, force, achievement, intelligence aggressiveness, conformity, honesty Weight expresses numerous observations of things that are more or less “heavy” or “light” --Kerlinger
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A Ladder of Abstraction for Concepts
Vegetation Increasingly more Abstract Fruit Banana Reality
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Construct A construct is a concept
Construct has the added meaning, however, of having been deliberately and consciously invented or adopted for a special scientific purpose An example (Intelligence) Enter into theoretical schemes and is related in various ways to other constructs. “Intelligence” is so defined and specified that it can be observed and measured -- Fred N. Kerlinger
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Construct A construct is an image or idea specifically for a given research and/or theory-building purpose We build constructs, which are more complex, by combining the simpler concepts, especially when the idea or image we intend to convey is not directly subject to observation There is no sharp demarcation between concepts and constructs -- Cooper & Schindler
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Constructs Composed of Concepts in a Job Redesign Example Most
abstract “ Job Interest Construct ” (Components unknown by analyst) “ Language Skill Construct ” Vocabulary Level of abstraction Syntax Spelling “ Presentation Quality Construct ” Manuscript errors Constructs Composed of Concepts in a Job Redesign Example Format Accuracy Typing speed Most concrete
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Proposition Statements concerned with the relationships among concepts
The logical linkage among concepts Assert a universal connection between properties State that every event or thing of a certain sort either has a certain property or stands in a certain relationship to other events or things that have certain properties -- Zikmund
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Proposition We define a proposition as a statement about
concepts which may be judged as true or false if it refers to observable phenomena -- Cooper & Schindler
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Theory Building Is a Process of Increasing Abstraction
Level of Abstraction Theories Propositions Concepts Observations of Objects and Events (Reality)
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Operational Definition
A statement of the precise meaning of a procedure or concept within an experiment --McBurney Assign meaning to a construct or a variable by specifying the activities or “operations” necessary to measure A constitutive definition defines a construct with other constructs -- Fred N. Kerlinger
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Operational Definition
An operational definition is one stated in terms of specific testing criteria or operations Whether the object to be defined is physical or highly abstract, the definition must specify the characteristics to study and how they are to be observed -- Cooper & Schindler
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Operational Definition
The specifications and procedures must be so clear that any competent person using them would classify the objects in the same way Operational definitions may vary depending on your purpose and the way you choose to measure them -- Cooper & Schindler
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Variable A variable is some property of an event in the world that has been measured -- Donald H. McBurney A variable is a symbol to which numerals or values are assigned A variable is a property that takes on different values -- Fred N. Kerlinger
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Variable The term variable is used by scientists and researchers as a synonym for construct or the property being studied A variable is a symbol to which numerals or values are assigned -- Cooper & Schindler
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Types of Variables Independent and dependent variables
Quantitative and categorical variables Continuous and discrete variables Physical and nonphysical variables --McBurney
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Types of Variables Independent and dependent variables
Active and attribute variables Continuous and categorical variables Latent variables --Kerlinger
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Dependent and Independent Variables
An independent variable is the presumed cause of the dependent variable, the presumed effect The independent is the antecedent; the dependent is the consequent The terms come from mathematics In experiments The independent variable is the variable manipulated by the experimenter In nonexperiment The independent variable is the variable that “logically” has some effect on a dependent variable Kerlinger
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Active and Attribute Variables
Manipulated variables will be called active variables; measured variables will be called attribute variables All variables that are human characteristics are attribute variables Intelligence, aptitude, sex, socioeconomic status. Conservatism, field dependence, need achievement, and attitude The active-attribute distinction is general, flexible, and useful The variable anxiety can be active or attribute Kerlinger
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Continuous and Categorical Variables
A continuous variable is capable of taking on an ordered set of values within a certain range Categorical variable belong to a kind of measurement called nominal There two or more subsets of the set of objects being measured Individuals are categorized by their possession of the characteristic that defines any subset -- Kerlinger
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Latent Variable A latent variable is an unobserved “entity” presumed to underlie observed variables Intelligence is the best-known example verbal, numerical and spatial tests are positively and substantially related, we believe that something is common to the three tests or observed variables and name this something “intelligence” Examples Achievement, creativity, social class, anti-Semitism, conformity, and so on
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Constructs and Observed Variable
Constructs are nonobservables Variables, when operationally defined, are observables
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Types of Variables independent and dependent variables
Explanatory variables Extraneous variables Intervening variables -- Cooper &Schindler
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Independent Variable Dependent Variable
Defining Independent and Dependent Variables Independent Variable Dependent Variable Presumed cause Stimulus Predicted from... Antecedent Manipulated Presumed effect Response Predicted to... Consequence Measured outcome
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Moderating Variables Moderating variables Example
a second independent variable that is included because it is believed to have a significant contributory or contingent effect on the original state IV-DV relationship Example The introduction of the four-day workweek (IV) will lead to higher productivity (DV), especially among younger workers (MV)
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Extraneous Variables An almost infinite number of extraneous variables exists that might conceivably affect a given relationship Example In routine office work (control), the introduction of the four-day workweek (IV) will lead to higher productivity (DV), especially among younger workers (MV)
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Intervening Variables
That factors which theoretically affects the observed phenomenon but cannot be seen, measured, or manipulated; its effect must be inferred from the effects of the independent and moderator variables on the observed phenomenon Examples The introduction of a four-day workweek will lead to higher productivity by increasing job satisfaction (IVV) A promotion campaign (IV) will increase saving activity (DV), especially when free prizes are offered (MV), but chiefly among smaller savers (control). The results come from enhancing the motivation to save(IVV)
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Hypothesis A provisional assertion assumed to be true for the purpose of testing its validity -- Donald H. McBurney A conjectural statement of the relation between two or more variables Two criteria for “good hypothesis” Hypotheses are statements about relations between variables Hypotheses carry clear implications for testing the stated relations --Kerlinger
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Hypothesis We define a proposition as a statement about
concepts which may judged as true or false if it refers to observable phenomena. When a proposition is formulated for empirical testing, we call it a hypothesis. -- Cooper & Schindler
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Types of Hypothesis Descriptive hypotheses Relational hypotheses
These are positions that typically state the existence, size, form, or distribution of some variable Relational hypotheses These are statements that describe a relationship between two variables with respect to some case
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Descriptive Hypotheses
These are propositions that typically state the existence, size, form, or distribution of some variable Example The current unemployment rate in Detroit exceeds 6 percent of the labor force Researchers will often use a research question rather than a descriptive hypothesis What is the unemployment rate in Detroit?
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Relational Hypotheses
These are statements that describe a relationship between two variables with respect to some case Example Foreign cars are perceived by American consumers to be of better quality than domestic cars Correctional relationships Young machinists are less productive than those who are 35 years or older Explanatory, or causal relationships An increase in family income leads to an increase in the percentage of income saved
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Hypotheses Are the Empirical Counterparts of Propositions
Concept A (Reinforcement) Concept B (Habit) Abstract Level Dollar bonus for sales volume over quota Always makes four sales calls a day Empirical Level
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The Role of Hypothesis It guides the direction of the study
It limits what shall be studied and what shall not It suggests which form of research design is likely to be most appropriate It provides a framework for organizing the conclusions that result Example Husbands and wives(who should be studied) agree in their perceptions of their respective roles(what shall be studied) in purchasing decisions(what context shall be studied)
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Theory A theory is a set of systematically interrelated concepts, definitions, and prepositions that are advanced to explain and predict phenomena (facts) -- Cooper & Schindler A theory is a set of interrelated constructs (concepts), definitions, and propositions that present a systematic view of phenomena by specifying relations among variables, with the purpose explaining and predicting the phenomena Kerlinger
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Theory A theory is a set of statements that organize a large body of facts (laws) into a single explanatory system, in a nutshell a theory is an explanation for a set of facts A theory is a statement or set of statements about the relationships among variables Sometimes a number of laws are tied together into a more general set of statements, which is called a theory --McBurney If the statements concern only a single relationship between variables, we are speaking of a law.
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Theory The role of theory The Goal of theory
Organizing knowledge and explaining laws Predicting new laws Guiding research --McBurney The Goal of theory Prediction Understanding --Zikmund
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A Basic Theory Explaining Voluntary job turnover
Labor Market Personality Perceived Ease of Movement Voluntary Job Turnover Intention to Quit Job Performance Perceived Desirability of Movement Pay Job Complexity Participation
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Paradigm A paradigm is a perspective way of thinking about a branch of science that includes all of assumptions and theories that are accepted as true by a group of scientists A new paradigm will be accepted when it accounts more successfully for empirical data than did the old paradigm --Kuhn
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Theory and Paradigm Paradigm are general framework or viewpoints
Points from which to view Provide ways of looking at life and are grounded in sets of assumptions about the nature of reality Theory is a systematic set of interrelated statements intended to explain some aspect of social life Theories flesh out and specify paradigm A theory aims at explaining what we see
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Theory and Paradigm Examples
Exchange paradigm suggest that we analyze social situations in terms of perceived costs and benefits of various behavior Exchange theory asserts, among other things, that “the more often a particular action of a person is rewarded, the more likely the person is to perform that actions examples Macrotheory vs. microtheory Conflict paradigm Role theory Feminist paradigms
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Model A model is defined here as a representation of a system which is constructed for the purpose of studying some aspect of that system or the system as a whole Models differ from theories in that a theory‘s role is explanation whereas a model’s role is representation A model is not an explanation; it is only the result of taking the structure or function of one object or process and using that as a model for the second Cooper&Schindler
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Law A law is a statement that certain events are regularly associated with each other in an orderly way Laws are probabilistic Laws do not have to state cause-effect relationships between events; any regular relationship is a law --McBurney
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