1. Three researchers are highlighted in this presentation.
EAL Module 2 Powerpoint A Theories Which Have Framed Our Understanding of Language Learning
Three researchers are highlighted in this presentation.
Lambert and Cummins present a Canadian context.
Krashen’s theories continue to be influential.
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2. Lambert: Positive Attitudes, Enriched Language Environments
Wallace Lambert is a Canadian researcher best known for highlighting Canada’s successes with immersion education for French language learning.
He dispelled the myth that learning another language weakens cognitive skills; his research indicated that cognitive skills are strengthened when languages are supported in positive ways.
Using the terms additive bilingualism (skills strengthened in both languages) and subtractive bilingualism (skills weakened by negative factors), he conveyed the message that key factors, such as positive attitudes and environmental support can make a significant difference to language learners.
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3. What We’ve Learned…
Visual Representation of Lambert’s Research
Attitudes Additive Bilingualism
Bilingual Motivation Proficiency Self-Concept
Subtractive
Bilingualism
Aptitude
If attitude, aptitude, and motivation toward both languages are positive, the learner gains proficiency, builds a healthy self-concept, and views both languages as beneficial. This is additive bilingualism.
If the same factors are negative, they will hamper the learner’s ability to gain proficiency. Both languages are weakened and subtractive bilingualism results. Learners resent having one language replace the other; feelings of inferiority begin to develop.
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4. Krashen: Comprehensible Input, Low Anxiety, Language Stages
Stephen Krashen continues to hold a central place for his research on
language learning . His findings led to the following 5 hypotheses:
There is a difference between acquisition and learning.
With fluency comes the ability to monitor errors (e.g., learners become aware of their own errors when using language).
Language is best learned through comprehensible input (i + 1), or language which is understood, and slightly above a learner’s level of understanding.
There is a natural order to language learning (progressive stages), which lead to proficiency.
Low anxiety levels (also called a low affective filter) promote language learning.
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5. What We’ve Learned… Process (acquisition-learning)
Krashen’s Main Messages
Process
(acquisition-learning)
Learning a new language differs from acquiring a first language.
This means that the first language environment cannot easily be replicated when learning language in a classroom or formal setting.
Path
(stages)
Language learning is not a haphazard or random process. There are stages, as identified by Krashen and Tyrell.
This means that systematic approaches to language instruction, opportunities for practice, and appropriate assessments can help language learners to identify their skills and chart their progress.
Learner
(comprehensibleinput, low anxiety, monitor skills)
Optimal language learning environments are those in which the language surrounding the learner is appropriately challenging, but not overwhelming, meaning that language is a few steps above the learner’s comprehension level.
This means that students should not be bombarded with unfamiliar language, because feelings of frustration or being overwhelmed will inhibit their learning.
With time, learners ‘hear’ their own errors and can self-correct.
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6. Krashen In the Classroom…
Comprehensible Input is important to language learners.
Teachers need to be aware of the level of language skills and abilities among language learners.
Instructional language will require adjustments for language learners.
Teaching and learning strategies which contain a blend of familiar and new language (i + 1) work as scaffolds for language progress.
Some language needs to be taught explicitly; pre-teaching key vocabulary in subject areas eases learner frustration.
Assessments should contain no surprises, meaning that terms and phrases should have been previously introduced.
Not all input results in intake. Not all intake results in output.
This means that not all language that is heard and understood stays in a learner’s active memory (intake) or becomes part of spoken vocabulary (output). Language learners have a threshold of recall skills.
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7. Cummins: BICS, CALP, and A Common Base of Thought
Through his research, Jim Cummins categorized two types of language ability: language used for basic communication (BICS*) and language used for academic study (CALP*).
He found that two variables, input (language surrounding the learner) and context (environmental support for the learner) affect a learner’s progress toward proficiency. A chart with four language quadrants shows how these variables intersect with one another.
Cummins’ also developed a Common Underlying Proficiency (CUP) theory, which suggests that all languages work through a central hub of conceptual thought in the brain. This theory dispelled the myth that learning a new language takes away ‘brain space’ from the first language.
*BICS – Basic Interpersonal Communication Skills; CALP – Cognitive Academic Language Proficiency
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8. What We’ve Learned… Cummins’ Quadrants and the ‘Iceberg’
Language Quadrants – The variables of cognitive demand and context create language
dimensions which describe the learner’s progress toward proficiency (Quadrant 4).
Cognitively Undemanding
BICS
Context Context-
Embedded Reduced
CALP
Cognitively Demanding
Common Underlying Proficiency or CUP Model – The “Iceberg Model” below illustrates that
learners have a common base of conceptual thought below the surface, deep in the brain.
Language Language Surface Level Common Underlying Proficiency
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9. Impact of the Variables
Beginners to Intermediates (Quadrant 1, 2)
Context-embedded – many surrounding cues or supporting props
Cognitively undemanding – simple language, uncomplicated situations
Language learners understand language with the help of gestures, visuals , props,
objects, sounds, repetitive tasks. Language is focused on simple tasks or basic
everyday needs in the home, school, community.
Advanced to Proficient (Quadrant 3, 4)
Context –reduced –few cues or surrounding props
Cognitively demanding –specialized, academic, or abstract language
Language learners need very few contextual cues to help them understand
instructions, subject-specific presentations, lectures, or abstracts. They also have
the ability to read or write essays, reports, critiques, editorials in academic areas.
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10. Cummins’ Quadrants In the Classroom…
Q1 Beginners - Can answer yes/no or short answer questions; fill in registration forms; buy lunch; shop for personal items; carry on a friendly conversation; do basic math; describe everyday routines or events; play games; write short notes or make lists; read signs, symbols, announcements.
Q2 Intermediate –Can conduct simple lab experiments; do math calculations, formulas; participate in arts and culture events, drama or musical productions; fill in applications,; relate news items from media sources; understand or give instructions for specific needs; learn driving rules; create a display.
Q3 Advanced Intermediate – Can fill in a survey or questionnaire; analyze and record chemistry procedures; be able to problem-solve in math and other subjects; access information for school essays, reports; speak, read, and write on a wide range of topics; understand audio presentations or guest speakers.
Q4 Advanced (fluency and accuracy similar to native speakers) – Can understand lectures, seminars, most literary genres, lengthy texts; read or write editorials, critiques, essays; do in-depth research; participate in literature circles, book reviews, debates; explain physics or chemistry concepts.
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11. References
Baker, C. (1993). Foundations of Bilingual Education and Bilingualism. Clevedon: Multilingual Matters. Cummins, J. (1980a). The construct of language proficiency in bilingual education. In J.E. Alatis (ed.) Georgetown University Round Table on Languages and Linguistics. Washington DC: Georgetown University Press. Cummins, J. (1984). Bilingualism and special education: Issues in assessment and pedagogy. Clevedon, England: Multilingual Matters. Krashen, S.D. (1981). Second language acquisition and second language learning. New York. NY: Pergamon Press. Krashen, S.D. & Terrell, T.D. (1983). The natural approach: Language acquisition in the classroom. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall. Vygotsky, L.S. (1962). Thought and language. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press
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