1. How and why do words change their meanings?
Semantic change
Starter: can you think of any words, either that we have already discussed, or that you can come up with, where the meaning has changed?
How and why do words change their meanings?

2. Neosemy
The process whereby a new meaning develops for an existing word.
Look up these words, first in a normal dictionary, and then with an etymological dictionary
Awful
Cunning
Mischievous
Naughty
Passion
Impertinent
Disease
Vulgar
Pretty
Fond

3. What processes are involved with neosemy?
Generalisation/broadening
The meaning of a word broadens so that it retains its old meaning but takes on added meanings e.g. holiday – holy day
Specialising/narrowing
Meat from mete
Wife
Amelioration
A word acquires a more pleasant or more positive meaning e.g. brave (used to mean wild/savage)
Pejoration
The opposite – a word becomes less favourable e.g. villain used to mean ‘farm worker’; hussy was short for housewife

4. What processes are involved with neosemy?
Weakening/bleaching
The reduction of the force of meaning of a word – often happens with taboo language e.g. ‘sh*t’ – ‘I’ll get my sh*t together’, meaning ‘stuff’
Metaphor
Words acquire additional meanings as physical ideas are extended to abstract ideas with similar qualities, e.g. grasp – physically grasp or to grasp an idea; high – physical height or to get high
Euphemism
The creation of polite, roundabout expressions for things considered unpleasant e.g. collateral damage
Polysemy
When words acquire many possible meanings, which coexist with the original e.g. milking it, good (morally good, of good quality), foot (of a hill, at the end of your leg)

5. Neosemy – how did these words change their meanings?
Awful
Cunning
Mischievous
Naughty
Passion
Impertinent
Disease
Vulgar
Pretty
Fond
What does the way these words have changed their meanings tell us about the values and assumptions of our society?

6. How do the meanings of words change?
Change from above or conscious changes
This is where change is initiated by those in a dominant social position, or occupying a position of power and authority; usually in line with standard forms of usage and linked to prestige forms of language
e.g. pupil v. student
e.g. gay
Change from below or unconscious changes
This is where change is driven by users of a language, developing or adapting language according to their own social need; often initially appearing in vernacular forms that may be introduced by any social class (N.B. this will be the most common way in which semantic change occurs)
e.g. decimated

7. Why do words change their meanings?
External Factors
Cultural changes, technological innovation or social convention may affect how a word is used. E.g. technology: web, bug, crash, windows.
Additionally, changing social ideas may necessitate a new term such as LGBT, to replace words that are no longer acceptable.
Internal Factors
The basic meaning of a word can be linked to something, e.g. an actual virus can be likened to a computer virus. This accounts for semantic change through metaphor.

8. Why do words change their meanings?
Effects of Norman invasion -
French terms connected with prestige, status or power ( words connected with the crown, government, law, high status cuisine and fashion)
crown, parliament, haute couture, venison, banquet, robe etc
Moralisation of status words OE - villain, churl, knave
Norman imports - noble, gentle,
Effects of Religious Reformation and lessening power of Church - secularisation of religious words
clerk, office, cell, goodbye, Anti-Catholic feeling pejorated certain words - idol, image, saint

9. Why do words change their meanings?
Influence of Advertising:
Advertising often provides clues to approved concepts or social values (e.g. consider value of conspicuous consumption vs environmental awareness in current adverts)
Certain words have been ameliorated
mean 'mean machine'
revolutionary 'revolutionary new product
blend 'gold blend'
flavour 'real flavour' etc
Alternative spellings
disappearing 'gh' --- lite nite brite (think about contexts in which these are seen!)
'kwik' 'kreme' 'n' (and)
These can offer alternative experiences e.g. nite club (not night club) lite (more slimming than 'light')

10. What contextual factors might have accounted for the way these words have changed their meanings?
Awful
Cunning
Mischievous
Naughty
Passion
Impertinent
Disease
Vulgar
Pretty
Fond

11. Homework – be ready to discuss next lesson
Read the extract from Jean Aitchinson, Language Change: Progress or Decay and answer the questions below in note form:
Why do people respond negatively to semantic change?
Why is it difficult to classify semantic change?
What is compared with ‘stamp collecting’?
How does Aitchinson recommend we treat semantic change?
In what ways are words NOT like cuckoos?
In what way can words be described as ‘fuzzy’?
What does Aitchinson mean by splitting into layers?
What ‘universal laws’ could be argued define the way polysemy occurs?