1. Chapter Four The Emergence of Thought and Language: Cognitive
Chapter Four The Emergence of Thought and Language: Cognitive Development in Infancy and Early Childhood

2. Piaget’s Account: Assimilation and Accommodation
When new experiences fit into existing schemes it is called assimilation
(i.e., bird flies…sees butterfly says bird flies; parent corrects “no, butterfly”, “no airplane”)
When schemes have to be modified as a consequence of new experiences, it is called accommodation
(i.e., M-to-be has 2 seater, need to purchase larger vehicle to accommodate growing fam)

3. Assimilation and Accommodation (cont)
Assimilation is required to benefit from experience.
Accommodation allows for dealing with completely new data or experiences

4. Piaget’s Account: Periods of Cognitive Development
Sensorimotor Period (0-2 years)
Infancy
Preoperational Period (2-7 years)
Preschool and early elementary school
Concrete Operational Period (7-11 years)
Middle and late elementary school
Formal Operational Period (11 years & up)
Adolescence and adulthood

5. Piaget’s Account: Sensorimotor Thinking
Object permanence: infants are able to mentally represent objects
-objects continue to exist even when they
can not be directly seen
Person permanence: will search for mother
before searching for object
-allows child to think of father when he’s at
work
Criticism: may be memory problem vs out-of-sight, out-of-mind problem

6. Sensorimotor Thinking (cont)
Beginning of capacity to use symbols (i.e., take a stick, wave thru air making airplane noise

7. Piaget’s Account: Preoperational Thinking
Egocentrism—thinking is limited
--inability to see the world from another’s
point of view
Animism—when inanimate objects come alive (“Mr. Sun is happy”)
Centration—concentrate on only one aspect of a problem, totally ignoring the other aspects

8. Preoperational Thinking (cont)
Conservation—one important feature of an object stays the same despite changes in physical appearance
Appearance is Reality—afraid when people wear scary masks

9. Caption: Children in the preoperational stage of development typically have difficulty solving conservation problems in which important features of an object (or objects) stay the same despite changes in physical appearance.

10. Criticisms of Piaget’s Theory
Piaget’s children were part of his research
He underestimates cognitive ability in infants and overestimates in adolescents
He does not account for variability in children’s performance
His theory undervalues the influence of sociocultural environment

11. Information Processing: General Principles
Human thinking is understood along a computer model
- incoding device=senses
- cpu/storage device=hippocampus
- decoding device=retrieving
information to answer questions

12. Information Processing Processes: Attention
When sensory information receives additional cognitive processing it is called attention
Emotional and physical reactions to unfamiliar stimulus causes an orienting response
A lessening of the reaction to a new stimulus is called habituation

13. Information Processing Processes: Learning
Classical Conditioning
A neutral stimulus becomes able to elicit a response that was previously caused by another stimulus
Operant Conditioning
Behaviors are affected by their consequences
Imitation
Older children learn by observing others

14. Information Processing Processes: Memory
Studies show that as early as 2-3 months children remember past events, forget them over time, and remember them again with cues
During the preschool years, children develop autobiographical memory for significant events in their own past

15. Preschoolers on the Witness Stand
Children’s responses to questioning about facts are quite vulnerable to suggestion and leading questions
Preschoolers have limited ability to use to remember the source of the information they recall (source monitoring skills)
This may lead to answers that reflect their memories without regard to whether they experienced the event, or were told about it

16. Information Processing Processes: Learning Number Skills
Ordinality: Knowing that numbers can differ in size and being able to tell which is greater
(knowing that 3 is greater than 2)
One-to-one principle: There is a number name for each object counted
(i.e., 3 objects = 1, 2, 3)

17. Learning Number Skills (cont)
Stable-order principle: Number names must always be counted in the same order
(count 1, 2, 3, 5 each time as 1, 2, 3, 5 not 1, 3, 2, 5)
Cardinality principle: The last number in a counting sequence denotes the number of objects
(i.e., four objects present; count 1, 2, 3, 4
FOUR=total number of objects

18. A Russian psychologist
Lev Vygotsky ( )
A Russian psychologist
Saw cognitive development as an apprenticeship in which children advance by interaction with others more mature
Vygotsky died young (37) and did not fully develop his theory beyond childhood

19. Mind & Culture: Vygotsky’s Theory Major Contributions
Zone of Proximal Development
The difference between what children can do with and without help from a more experienced guide
Teachers should attempt to keep students in this zone in order to achieve maximum achievement

20. Vygotsky’s Theory (cont)
Scaffolding
Giving just enough assistance
Studies show that students do not learn as well when told everything to do, nor when left alone to discover on their own

21. Private Speech
Children talk to themselves as they go about difficult tasks
This speech is not intended for others, but for self guidance and regulation
Eventually this private speech becomes internalized and becomes inner speech… which was Vygotsky’s term for thought

22. Language: Identifying Words
Studies show that as early as 1 month infants can distinguish between sounds
Children learn to pay more attention to often repeated and emphasized words
Parents use infant-directed speech in which they speak slowly and exaggerate changes in pitch and volume
Sometimes called motherese because it was first observed in mothers

23. Language: Steps to Speech
At 2 months, infants begin cooing
Around 6 months, toddlers begin babbling
At 8-11 months children incorporate changes in pitch that are typical of the language they hear

24. Language: First Words & Many More
Around 1 year, children use their first words, usually consonant-vowel pairs such as “dada” or “wawa” = holophrasic speech)
By 2 years, children have a vocabulary of around a few hundred words = telegraphic speech
(where mommy, me do, good baby)
By 3 years, multi-word sentences (where is mommy, I want more juice)

25. First Words & Many More
Vocabulary ranges from 25 to 250 words at 18 months
By age 6, children know around 10,000 words
Some children use a referential style vocabulary to name objects, persons, or actions
Connecting new words to that which they refer helps to infer the meaning of the new word

26. First Words & Many More (cont)
Other children use an expressive style to make statements resembling single words Includes social phrases
(i.e., “I want it”, “Where did he go”)

27. Language: Fast Mapping and Naming errors
Children use sentence cues to infer the meaning of unfamiliar words
Naming errors result from underextension (defining words too narrowly)
Overextension (defining words too broadly)
--child knows what a horse is but has never seem a donkey; first time he sees a donkey, he says horsey

28. Language: Fast Mapping Naming errors
Words or endings that makes a sentence grammatically correct
-ing
-birds (add s)
-fish not fishes
Overregularization—saying “runned” instead of “ran”

29. Language: Encouraging Language Growth
Parents assist in learning language by:
Speaking to children frequently
Naming objects of children’s attention
Using speech that is more grammatically sophisticated
Reading to them
Encouraging watching television programs with an emphasis on learning new words, such as Sesame Street

30. Language: Communicating With Others
Effective communication requires:
Taking turns as speaker and listener
Making sure to speak in language the listener understands
Paying attention while listening and making sure the speaker knows if he/she is being understood