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Chapter Six Learning Bernstein_06_Learning.

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1 Chapter Six Learning Bernstein_06_Learning

2 What Is Learning? Adaptive process through which experience modifies pre-existing behavior and understanding. Bernstein_06_Learning

3 Adaptation to a constant stimulus is simple learning
Reponses to unchanging stimuli decreases over time. Habituation is simplest form of learning. Bernstein_06_Learning

4 Non-Associative Learning
Learning results from the impact of one particular stimulus. Not the result of learning to associate one stimulus with another (i.e. habituation.) We learn to ignore repeated stimuli Bernstein_06_Learning

5 Another example of non-associative learning
Why do people engage in risky behavior? Solomon’s (1980) Opponent Process Theory explains this – Based on disruption and restoration of equilibrium. Explains drug addiction, bungee jumping, and maybe even self destructive gangbanging behavior. Bernstein_06_Learning

6 Solomon’s Opponent-Process Theory
New stimuli that cause extreme positive or negative feeling cause opposite (opponent) feeling to occur to restore equilibrium. If new stimulus is repeated the opponent feeling happens faster and stronger, eventually suppressing original stimulus. i.e. Drug addiction – over time addicts need more drug to get the same effect (habituation), and withdrawal gets worse over time too. i.e. Why do people skydive, ride rollercoasters? Bernstein_06_Learning

7 Associative Learning Most learning theories are based on
associations of one stimulus with another, or associations between behavior and its consequences. Classical Conditioning - Ivan Pavlov, John B. Watson Instrumental & Operant Conditioning - Edward Thorndike, B.F. Skinner Bernstein_06_Learning

8 Ivan Pavlov - Classical Conditioning
Bernstein_06_Learning

9 Pavlov’s Classical Conditioning
Start with Unconditioned Stimulus UCS Causes an instinctive Unconditioned Response UCR For example, food causes salivation (drooling) Then PAIR the UCS with a Neutral Stimulus Presenting the UCS with Neutral Stimulus causes an association to form. The more you do it, the stronger the association. Ex., ring a bell when you present food… Eventually the bell ALONE will cause salivation The bell was neutral, but is now a Conditioned Stimulus CS which causes salivation, the Conditioned Response CR Bernstein_06_Learning

10 Classical Conditioning – UCS, UCR, CS, CR
Bernstein_06_Learning

11 Apparatus for Measuring Conditioned Responses
Bernstein_06_Learning

12 Little Albert – John Watson
Bernstein_06_Learning

13 Changes Over Time in the Strength of a Conditioned Response: Extinction and Spontaneous Recovery
Bernstein_06_Learning

14 Stimulus Generalization - Pavlov
Bernstein_06_Learning

15 Stimulus Discrimination
What if there were no limits to stimulus generalization? Stimulus Discrimination: Learning to differentiate among similar stimuli. Complementary (opposite) process to stimulus generalization. Bernstein_06_Learning

16 Factors Affecting the Learning of a Conditioned Response
Timing Forward conditioning = CS then UCS Most effective (bell then food0 Backward conditioning = UCS then CS Less effective (food then bell) Simultaneous conditioning = Same time Least effective (food and bell at the same time) Predictability Signal Strength Attention to Stimulus Bernstein_06_Learning

17 More Factors Affecting the Learning of a Conditioned Response
Second-Order Conditioning i.e. Dr.’s waiting room (cs) and shot (ucs)– waiting room could begin to act as ucs… eventually magazines become cs. While adaptive, can cause problems. Biopreparedness Animals are predisposed to certain conditioning situations… perhaps genetic. i.e. taste aversions, snakes vs. cars. Bernstein_06_Learning

18 Some Applications of Classical Conditioning
Can play role in the development of phobias. (extreme fears that are not based on real danger or fear reactions that aren’t appropriate to real danger) Systematic desensitization as a treatment – to cause extinction. Predator Control – taste aversion Predicting Alzheimer’s Disease – ability of patients to be conditioned to blink (air puff = ucs, light =cs) deteriorates. Other applications? Bernstein_06_Learning

19 Instrumental and Operant Conditioning: Learning the Consequences of Behavior
Bernstein_06_Learning

20 Edward L. Thorndike 1898 Was studying animals’ intelligence and ability to solve problems. Used a puzzle box. What were Thorndike’s cats learning? “Law of effect” – Consequences change behavior. Described this kind of learning as instrumental conditioning. – Organisms learn to do things that have satisfying or pleasurable consequences. Continue Bernstein_06_Learning

21 Figure 6.5: Thorndike’s Puzzle Box
Return Bernstein_06_Learning

22 B. F. Skinner - Operant Cond.
Extended and formalized many of Thorndike’s ideas. Organisms learn responses by operating on the environment. “Operant conditioning” Primary aim was to analyze how behavior is changed by its consequences. Bernstein_06_Learning

23 Basic Components of Operant Conditioning
Operant – a response that has an effect on the world. Reinforcer – a stimulus that increases the probability that the behavior which preceded it will occur again. Positive reinforcer – a pleasurable thing follows behavior – ie: Mom gives kid candy for good behavior in store (kid is being conditined) Negative reinforcer – an unpleasurable thing STOPS following behavior. ie: Kid stops whining when mom gives them candy in checkout line (mom is being conditioned) Bernstein_06_Learning

24 Figure 6.6: Positive and Negative Reinforcement
Bernstein_06_Learning

25 Escape and Avoidance: Two types of negative reinforcement
Escape Conditioning Avoidance Conditioning Adapted from: The Psychology of Memory and Learning by Hintzman. © 1978 by W.H. Freeman and Company. Used with permission. Bernstein_06_Learning

26 IMPORTANT!! Negative reinforcement is NOT punishment.
Negative reinforcement is the REMOVAL of unpleasant stimulus when target behavior is observed (a positive consequence of behavior – increases behavior) Punishment is the introduction of an aversive (unpleasant) stimulus or removal of a pleasant stimulus as a consequence of behavior – ( a negative consequence of behavior - decreases behavior. Bernstein_06_Learning

27 Operant Conditioning Activity
Two volunteers A bit like “hot and cold” game. Bernstein_06_Learning

28 BF Skinner 1904-1990 Operant Conditioning
Bernstein_06_Learning

29 Forming and Strengthening Operant Behavior
Shaping – Process of reinforcing responses that get closer and closer to the desired response. Primary Reinforcer – meets basic needs i.e food, water.- Give dog a treat. Secondary Reinforcement Say “good dog” when you give the dog a treat… eventually you won’t need so many treats. (money vs. food/shelter…) Secondary reinforcers (or “conditioned reinforcers”) Greatly expands the power of operant conditioning. Depends on what people like… rock concert, opera? Bernstein_06_Learning

30 Delay and Size of Reinforcement
Timing of Reinforcer – Usually the shorter the delay between behavior and reinforcement, the more effective. Size of Reinforcer – Usually the larger the reinforcer, the more effective. Bernstein_06_Learning

31 Schedules of Reinforcement
Continuous reinforcement schedule: flip switch, light goes on every time. – works well, but not practical in many situations. Partial or intermittent reinforcement schedule. – also work well and more practical. Flip switch multiple times before light goes on. Bernstein_06_Learning

32 Partial / Intermittent Schedules
Fixed Ratio (FR) – every 10th response = FR10 Variable Ratio (VR) – not as predictable, the ratio varies, but can be described as the average VR 30 Fixed Interval (FI) – Reinforces the first response and then every fixed amount of time later as long as there is a response. (many jobs pay this way) Variable Interval (VI) – Random checks after some average interval has passed… avid binder check about every 2 weeks. Bernstein_06_Learning

33 Intermittent Reinforcement Schedules
Based on Number of necessary responses Based on Time that must first pass Fixed Ratio (FR) Fixed Interval (FI) Predictable Variable Ratio (VR) Variable Interval (VI) Unpredictable (“On the Average”) Bernstein_06_Learning

34 Effectiveness of Different Schedules of Reinforcement
Adapted from "Teaching Machines" by B.F. Skinner, Copyright © 1961 by Scientific American, Inc. All rights reserved. Bernstein_06_Learning

35 Schedules and Extinction
Failure to reinforce a response extinguishes that response. Partial Reinforcement Extinction Effect Explains why superstitious behaviors are resistant to extinction. Bernstein_06_Learning

36 Self Stimulation – James Olds
Pleasure Center in brain – Median Forebrain Bundle ..\Psych_Video_Clips\SelfStimRat_PleasureCenter.MOV Bernstein_06_Learning

37 Punishment Reduces the frequency of an operant behavior by presenting an unpleasant stimulus or removing a pleasant one. Two kinds of punishment. Negative Reinforcement vs. Punishment Negative reinforcement: Strengthens behavior. Punishment: Weakens behavior Continue Bernstein_06_Learning

38 Figure 6.10: Two Kinds of Punishment
Return Bernstein_06_Learning

39 Potential Drawbacks of Punishment
Does not “erase” an undesirable habit; merely suppresses it. Sometimes produces unwanted side effects. Often ineffective unless given immediately after the response and each time the response is made. Bernstein_06_Learning

40 Potential Drawbacks of Punishment (cont’d.)
Can become aggression, even abuse, if administered in anger. Children are more likely to behave aggressively if frequently punished. Signals what is inappropriate behavior but does not specify correct alternative behavior. Bernstein_06_Learning

41 Guidelines for Effective Punishment
Specify why punishment is being given. Without being abusive, punishment should be immediate and noticeable enough to eliminate the undesirable behavior. Identify and reinforce more appropriate behaviors. Bernstein_06_Learning

42 Cognitive Processes in Learning
Behaviorists: Not interested in role of conscious mental activity in learning. Cognitive Psychologists: Learning may also result from mental processes. Classical and operant conditioning helps to detect causality. Bernstein_06_Learning

43 Learned Helplessness Tendency to give up any effort to control the environment after experience suggests that no control is possible. First demonstrated in animals. Bernstein_06_Learning

44 Observational Learning
Learning by Watching Others Also called social learning. Bandura’s “Bobo” Doll Experiment Powerful source of the socialization process. Bernstein_06_Learning

45 Observational Learning
Bandura, A., Ross, D., & Ross, S. A. (1963). Imitation of film-mediated aggressive models. Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology, 66, Bernstein_06_Learning

46 Main Learning Theories
Classical Conditioning Pairing stimuli leads to conditioned responses Pavlov, Watson Operant Conditioning Behavior is shaped by its consequences Schedules of reinforcement Thorndike, Skinner Observational Learning People learn by watching others and observing the consequences others receive Bandura

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