1. Biology and Behavior
The Brain

2. Interesting technique facts about structure and function
Paul Broca - found a patient unable to speak and during surgery found deterioration of the frontal left cerebral hemisphere. (expressive aphasia)
Carl Wernicke – found a patient unable to understand language and during surgery found deterioration of the temporal left lobe. (receptive aphasia)

3. Interesting technique facts about structure and function
Phineas Gage – damage to the frontal lobe – was unable to control his emotions.
Studies on split brain patients discovered the left hemisphere specialized in verbal, mathematical, and analytical functions. The nonverbal right hemisphere specializes in spatial, musical, and holistic functions (identifying faces, and recognizing emotional facial expressions).

4. Measuring Brain Function
Computerized axial tomography (CAT or CT) – creates a computerized image using x-rays passed through various angles of the brain showing two-dimensional slices that can be arranged to show the extent of a lesion.
Electroencephalogram (EEG) - amplified tracing of brain activity produced when electrodes positioned over the scalp transmit signals about the brain’s electrical activity (brain waves)

5. Measuring Brain Function
Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) – a magnetic field and pulses of radio waves cause emission of faint radio frequency signals that depend upon the density of the tissue. The computer constructs images based on varying signals that are more detailed then the CT scan. Both show the structure of the brain not the functioning.

6. Measuring Brain Function
Positron Emission Tomography (PET) – produces color computer graphics that depend on the amount of metabolic activity in the brain. When neurons are active blood flow brings oxygen and glucose to the brain.
Functional MRI (fMRI) – shows the brain at work at higher resolution than the PET scan. Changes in oxygen in the blood of an active brain area alters its magnetic qualities, which is recorded by the fMRI scanner.

7. Structure and Function of the Neuron
Sensory (afferent neurons) – transmit impulses from your sensory receptors to the spinal cord or brain.
Interneurons – located entirely within your brain and spinal cord. Intervenes between sensory and motor neurons.
Motor (efferent neurons) – transmit impulses from your sensory or interneurons to muscle cells.

8. Structure and Function of the Neuron
The Neuron is the basic unit of structure and function of your nervous system.
Neurons perform 3 major functions:
Receive information
Process it
Transmit it to the rest of your body
Three major regions of a neuron enable the cell to communicate with other cells.

9. Structure and Function of the Neuron
Dendrites - branching tubular processes capable of receiving information.
Axon – emerges from the cyton as a single conduction fiver which branches and ends in tips called terminal buttons.
Myelin – fatty insulation for the axon
Neurogenesis – the growth of new neurons.
Action Potential – when sufficiently stimulated, a net flow of sodium ions into the cell causes a rapid change in potential across the membrane.

10. Neurotransmitters
Chemicals stored in structures of the terminal buttons called synaptic vesicles.
Different neurotransmitters have different chemical structures and perform different functions.
Acetylcholine (Ach) – causes contraction of skeletal muscles, helps regulate heart muscles, is involved in memory, and also transmits messages between the brain and spinal cord. Lack of Ach is associated with Alzheimer’s disease.
Dopamine – stimulates the hypothalamus to synthesize hormones and affects alertness and movement. Lack of dopamine is associated with Parkinson’s disease; too much dopamine is associated with schizophrenia.

11. Neurotransmitters
Glutamate - a major excitatory neurotransmitters involved in information processing throughout the cortex and especially memory formation in the hippocampus.
Serotonin – is associated with sexual activity, concentration and attention, moods, and emotions. Lack of serotonin is associated with depression.
Endorphins- considered the brain’s own pain killers.
Gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA) – inhibits firing of neurons. Benzodiazepine (Valium) and anticonvulsant drugs increase activity. Huntington’s disease -Insufficient GABA production involved in coordination of movement.
Agonists – may mimic a neurotransmitter and bind to its receptor site to produce the effect of the neurotransmitter.
Antagonists – block a receptor site to produce the effect of the neurotransmitter or agonist.

12. The Endocrine System
Interacts with your nervous system to regulate your behavior and body functions.
The endocrine system consists of glands that secrete chemical messengers called hormones into your blood.
Endocrine glands include: pineal gland, hypothalamus, & pituitary gland in the brain; the thyroid and the parathyroid in the neck; the adrenal glands atop the kidneys; pancreas near the stomach and either testes or ovaries.

13. Endocrine System
Pineal Gland – produces melatonin, regulates circadian rhythms, associated with seasonal affective disorder.
Hypothalamus – produces hormones that stimulate or inhibit secretion of hormones by the pituitary gland.
Pituitary Gland – master gland because it produces hormones that promote secretion of other glands including:
TSH – thyroid stimulating hormone
ACTH – adrenocorticotropic hormone stimulates adrenal cortex
FSH – follicle stimulating hormone, stimulates egg or sperm hormone.
Produces ADH (antidiuretic hormone) to help retain water in your body and HGH (Human growth hormone)

14. Endocrine System
Thyroid gland – produces thyroxine, stimulates and maintains metabolic activities. Lack of thyroxine can result in mental retardation.
Parathyroid gland - produce parathyroid hormone that helps maintain the calcium ion level in blood necessary for normal functioning of neurons.
Adrenal glands – produces steroid hormones, such as cortisol, which is a stress hormone.
Pancreas - insulin and glucagon regulate blood sugar that fuels all behavioral processes.
Ovaries and Testes - necessary for reproduction and development of secondary sex characteristics.

15. Genetics and Behavior
nature-nurture controversy - deals with the extent to which heredity and environment each influence behavior.
Evolutionary psychologists study how natural selection favored behaviors to survival, behaviors shared by all people, behaviors conserved across species
Behavioral geneticists - study the role played by our genes and our environment in mental ability, emotional stability, temperament, personality, interests, etc.