1. Language contestation in Vanuatu’s education system
Fiona Willans

2. The focus of this presentation ...
... the Government of Vanuatu’s aspiration for
L2+L3 ‘bilingualism’,
using snapshots from
Ministry of Education documents
an ethnographic case study of two secondary schools
and

3. Population: 240,000
109 languages
Official languages: English, French & Bislama (pidgin)
Joint British & French rule
Dual-medium education system
Medium of instruction is English or French
French or English is taught as a subject

4. Clarification of terminology
Anglophone & Francophone – categories exclusive to the domain of education
L1 – all languages spoken
before/outside school
L2 – the language used as
medium of instruction
L3 – the language taught as
a subject

5. L2+L3 ‘bilingualism’
“There is also virtually unanimous support among ni-Vanuatu for continuing to use both English and French as international languages and media of instruction. This support goes well beyond the wish to preserve the letter of the law as set forth in the Constitution. We believe that our bilingual society in two international languages makes us unique in the Pacific, and almost all of us, from parents in the village to Parliamentarians, perceive cultural and economic reasons for keeping both languages. We share a vision of a bilingual society where all secondary-school graduates will be bilingual and where the need for translation would have decreased dramatically because virtually everyone will be able to understand everyone else, whichever language is being used. As parents, we hope that our children would be fluent in both”. (Education Master Plan 1999:19)

6. A consistent goal of ‘bilingualism’
“English and French should be used interchangeably where possible in order to create competency in both languages” (Guidelines to principals 1998)
“it is the aim of education that every individual, besides knowing his/her mother tongue, will become bi-lingual in English and French” (EFA Action Plan 2004)
“Bi-lingualism in English and French is seen as a competitive advantage and a national asset” (Education Sector Strategy 2006)
“The principal languages of education should be promoted equally in all classrooms at higher primary, secondary and tertiary levels” (National Language Policy 2006)
Objective 14 = “to promote bilingualism in the Vanuatu education system, consistent with the Vanuatu Constitutional requirement that the principal languages of education are English and French” (Education Road Map 2009)

7. Problems ...

8. This version of bilingualism ignores L1
L1 encompasses
45 languages at the Anglophone school
11 languages at the Francophone school
Bislama is spoken by
100% of students
95% of Anglophone teachers
100% of Francophone teachers
8 of the other languages are spoken by
72% of Anglophone students
96% of Francophone students
80% of Anglophone staff
75% of Francophone staff

9. Typical (?) patterns of language use for a secondary school using an L2 medium
Teacher-student interaction in class
Predominantly L2
Student-student interaction in class
Predominantly L1 for non-academic interaction (L1/L2 for academic interaction at the Anglophone school)
Teacher-student interaction outside class
Elements of both L1 and L2
Student-student and teacher-teacher interaction outside class
Predominantly L1

10. Only L2 is needed for academic work
Primary school
Secondary school L1
Used unofficially
Excluded or ignored L2
Medium of instruction in all content subjects
6 periods a week of language study
Medium of all assessments L3 –
4 periods a week of language study

11. Language rules (1): The Anglophone school
As a written text:
“English and French and/or any other approved languages are the only languages allowed to be used during school terms, in the College compound”
As spoken text:
No episodes in which other languages sanctioned
Reminders not to speak L1
Reminders to speak L2
E.g. (8/4/11) “Reminder for uniform tidiness, punctuality & language use (English)”
No mention of L3

12. Language rules (2): The Francophone school
As a written text:
[During school days, students should speak French from 6.30 to 12.20, from to 15.30, and during study periods. Outside the hours mentioned above and during weekends, students can communicate in other languages of their choice.]
As spoken text:
Reminders to use L2 (and not L1) on La Journée de la Francophonie (by staff and students)
Desirability of an L2-only policy expressed
No mention of L3

13. A long way from L2+L3 ‘bilingualism’
Widely used but there is a feeling that it shouldn’t be
Needed for academic success so promoted
Rarely used and ignored by school policies
The school reality is more like L1+L2 ‘bilingualism’
with an idealisation of L2 ‘monolingualism’
(or two different L2 ‘monolingualisms’)