1. URBDP 591 A Lecture 1: Research Paradigms
Objectives
What is a paradigm and how it affects research
Positivist vs. constructivist paradigms
theoretical assumptions
methodological procedures
Quantitative vs. quantitative approaches
How to integrate multiple approaches

2. What is a paradigm
Paradigms are operating rules about the appropriate relationships among theories, methods, and evidence that constitute the actual practice of the members of a particular scientific community.
Examples:
- Copernican Astronomy
- Newtonian dynamics
- Wave optics

3. Reality Reality is merely an illusion, albeit a very
persistent one. [Einstein]

4. Paradigms of inquiry Positivism Naturalist/Constructivist
Post-Positivism
Critical theory/Postmodernism

5. Paradigms of inquiry Positivism
There is a real world out there, whose characteristics can be observed, measured and generalized in a way that come close to truth.
Naturalist/Constructivist
The world is socially constructed by language, and language is constituted by cultural meanings negotiated by people with identities shaped by their historical experience and social location.

6. Paradigms of inquiry Post-positivism
There imperfect reality and only somewhat apprehensible. Rigorous procedures are used to apprehend what is apprehensible.
Critical Theory/Postmodernism
Reality is shaped by social, political, cultural, economic, ethnic, gender values; the dialogue between investigator and subjects is considered a dialogue to transform ignorance into informed consciousness.

7. How do paradigms define research
Our theories or models of reality determine the questions we ask, the problems we perceive, the methods we select, the data we collect and analyze and the policies and actions we initiate (Holling 1976).
Paradigms are way of thinking about reality and thus about conducting research. A paradigm determines the type of questions that are legitimate, how they will be answered, and in what context they will be interpreted.

8. Deductive and Inductive Approaches
In logic, we often refer to the two broad methods of reasoning as the deductive and inductive approaches
Inductive
Deductive

9. Comparing paradigms
Ontology: the nature of the "reality”? What is real?
Epistemology: validation of knowledge claims: the relationship of the "knower" to what is "knowable." How do we know what we know about the world around us?
Methodology: how we know what we know; what ways we think are legitimate for generating knowledge
Causality: the possibility of causal linkages, distinction
between cause and effects
Neutrality: the role of value, degree of subjectivity

12. Pragmatic-Strategic View
A broad range of theoretical and methodological choices and their integration in a dialectic manner produces the riches results of inquiry.
Alternative paradigms are useful to understand different aspects and objectives of research and accordingly select appropriate methodologies.
Postmodern critique is an indispensable starting point for critical evaluation of our assumptions about the production of knowledge, but offer few clues about how to do work.
The usefulness of a positivist epistemology lies in the pragmatic assumption that there is a world out there that can be observed and measured in a way that approximate the truth.

13. Relating paradigms to types of research
The choice of research format (exploration/formulative, description/descriptive, and explanation/experimental) depends upon three general factors:
1) the type of research question proposed
2) the extent of control a researcher has/desires over the actual behavior or events under study, and
3) the degree of focus on contemporary as
opposed to historical phenomenon.

14. Relating paradigms to types of research
Type Question(s) Control Time Focus Paradigm
Descriptive Who, where, No Present Constructivism
how much, and Critical Theory
how many Positivism
Exploratory What No Present Constructivism
Positivism
Explanatory Why Yes Present Positivism
Past Post-Positivism
Evaluation How well Yes Present Positivism
Past Post-Positivism
Historical/critical How, why No Past Critical theory
Postmodernism
Post-positivism

15. Selecting an approach
A. Measurement: What category or type of object, event, or person(s) will be observed and how will observations be recorded?
B. Sampling: Out of the whole universe of this type of object, event, or person(s), which (and how many) will be selected for study?
C. Design: A series of choices specific to the methodology selected: will the research be inductive or deductive? Interpretive or functional? Controlled or naturalistic? Conducted in the field or in an artificial setting? Will you be a participant in the social setting or an observer? Will it involve qualitative or quantitative data? Will it be cross-sectional or longitudinal?

16. Selecting an approach
D. Procedures: What specific steps will you follow to complete the study? Over what period of time? If applicable, what specifically will happen to participants in the study?
E. Data analysis: Know in advance how you will evaluate each piece of data you gather to answer the research question or test the research hypothesis. Will analysis be qualitative or quantitative? What measures will be compared? Will you look for differences between groups or relationships between variables?

17. Quantitative vs. qualitative: A false dichotomy
Positive and constructive paradigms use predominantly
one approach but do not imply specific types of data,
methods, or analysis.
Quantitative and qualitative research:
aims to different research objectives and questions
use different methods and techniques
have different assumptions
allow different interpretation of findings
have different implications restrictions

18. Types of Validity
Measurement is a tool of research, and validity is the attempt to
determine whether a type of measurement measures what it is
presumed to measure.
A. Face validity. This type of validity relies basically upon the subjective judgment of the researcher.
B. Content validity. Content validity is the accuracy with which an instrument measures the factors or situations under study; i.e. the "content" being studied.
C. Construct validity. Construct validation is interested in the degree to which the construct itself is actually measured. It makes use of the traits of convergence and discriminability.
D. Internal validity. Internal validity is the freedom from bias in forming conclusions in view of the data. It seeks to ascertain that the changes in the dependent variable are the result of the influence of the independent variable.
E. External validity. This type of validity is concerned with the generalizability of the conclusions reached through observation of a sample to the universe.

19. Reliability Reliability: the extent to which a measurement
procedure yields the same answer however and
whenever it is carried out.
1. Quixotic reliability: Refers to the circumstances in which a single method of observation continually yields an unvarying answer.
2. Diachronic reliability: Refers to the stability of an observation over time. This type of reliability is only appropriate when the phenomenon observed is not assumed to change over time.
3. Synchronic reliability: Refers to the similarity of results from the use of multiple measures within the same time period.

20. Mixed-Method
Triangulation: tests the consistency of findings obtained through different instruments.
Complementarity: clarifies and illustrates results from one method with the use of another method.
Development: results from one method shape subsequent methods or steps in the research process.
Initiation: stimulates new research questions or challenges results obtained through one method.
Expansion: provides richness and detail to the study exploring specific features of each method.

21. Theories of city genesis and functions
Cities are unique historical processes
Cities are human ecosystems
Cities are economic systems
Cities are communication networks
Cities are systems of linked decisions
Cities are arenas of conflicts