1. Welcome Back
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2. Welcome Back
Time for Any Question
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3. Chapter 05
Cost Behavior and
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4. Cost Behavior and Cost-Volume-Profit Analysis
Chapter 05
Cost Behavior and Cost-Volume-Profit Analysis
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5. Identifying Cost Behavior
Cost-Volume-Profit analysis is used to answer questions such as:
How much does income increase if we install a new machine to reduce labor costs?
What is the change in income if selling prices decline and sales volume increases?
How will income change if we change the sales mix of our products or services?
What sales volume is needed to earn a target income?
Planning a company’s future activities and events is crucial to successful management. One of the first steps in planning is to predict the volume of activity, the costs to be incurred, sales to be made, and profit to be earned. An important tool in such planning is cost-volume-profit (CVP) analysis, which helps managers predict how changes in costs and sales levels affect profit. In its basic form, CVP analysis involves computing the sales level at which a company neither earns an income nor incurs a loss, called the break-even point. For this reason, this basic form of cost-volume-profit analysis is often called break-even analysis.
Managers use variations of CVP analysis to answer questions like:
How much does income increase if we install a new machine to reduce labor costs?
What is the change in income if selling prices decline and sales volume increases?
How will income change if we change the sales mix of our products or services?
What sales volume is needed to earn a target income?
Consequently, cost-volume-profit analysis is useful in a wide range of business decisions.
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6. Fixed Costs
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7. Fixed Costs C 1 Atef Abuelaish
Fixed costs remain unchanged despite variations in the volume of activity within a relevant range. For example, $32,000 in monthly rent paid for a factory building remains the same whether the factory operates with a single eight-hour shift or around the clock with three shifts. This means that rent cost is the same each month at any level of output from zero to the plant’s full productive capacity. Common examples of fixed costs include depreciation, property taxes, office salaries, and many service department costs.
Be sure to realize that the idea of fixed cost not changing as the level of production changes applies to the total dollar amount. It does not apply to the per unit amount. Rather, the fixed cost per unit of output decreases as volume increases. For instance, if 200 units are produced when monthly rent is $32,000, the average rent cost per unit is $160 (computed as $32,000/200 units). When production increases to 1,000 units per month, the average rent cost per unit decreases to $32 (computed as $32,000/1,000 units).
The top graph in this slide shows that fixed costs remain at $32,000 at all production levels up to the company’s monthly capacity of 2,000 units of output. The bottom graph in this slide shows that fixed costs per unit fall as production levels increase. This drop in costs per unit as production levels increase is known as economies of scale. The relevant range for fixed costs in both slides is zero to 2,000 units. If the relevant range changes (that is, production capacity extends beyond this range), the amount of fixed costs will likely change.
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8. Variable Costs
Variable costs change in proportion to changes in volume of activity. The direct materials cost of a product is one example of a variable cost. If one unit of product requires materials costing $20, total materials costs are $200 when ten units of product are manufactured, $400 for 20 units, $600 for 30 units, and so on. In addition to direct materials, common variable costs include direct labor (if employees are paid per unit), sales commissions, shipping costs, and some overhead costs.
Notice that variable cost per unit remains constant but the total amount of variable cost changes with the level of production. When variable costs are plotted on a graph of cost and volume, they appear as a straight line starting at the zero cost level. This straight line is upward (positive) sloping. The line rises as volume of activity increases. A variable cost line using a $20 per unit cost is graphed in the top graph. The bottom graph in this slide shows that variable cost per unit is constant as production levels change.
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9. Mixed Costs
Are costs only either fixed or variable? No—another category, mixed costs, includes both fixed and variable cost components. For example, compensation for sales representatives often includes a fixed monthly salary and a variable commission based on sales. Utilities can also be considered a mixed cost; even if no units are produced, it is not likely a manufacturing plant will use no electricity or water. Like a fixed cost, a mixed cost is greater than zero when volume is zero; but unlike a fixed cost, it increases steadily in proportion to increases in volume.
The total (mixed) cost line in the top graph in this slide starts on the vertical axis at the $32,000 fixed cost point. Thus, at the zero volume level, total cost equals the fixed costs. As the activity level increases, the total cost line increases at an amount equal to the variable cost per unit. This line is highest when the volume of activity is at 2,000 units (the end point of the relevant range). In CVP analysis, mixed costs should be separated into fixed and variable components. The fixed component is added to other fixed costs, and the variable component is added to other variable costs.
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10. Step-Wise Costs
A step-wise cost (or stair-step cost) reflects a step pattern in costs. Salaries of production supervisors often behave in a step-wise manner in that their salaries are fixed within a relevant range of the current production volume. However, if production volume expands significantly (for example, with the addition of another shift), additional supervisors must be hired. This means that the total cost for supervisory salaries goes up by a lump-sum amount. Similarly, if production volume takes another significant step up, supervisory salaries will increase by another lump sum. This behavior is graphed in this slide. See how the step-wise cost line is flat within ranges, called the relevant range. Then, when volume significantly changes, the cost shifts to another level for that range.
In CVP analysis, a step-wise cost is usually treated as either a fixed cost or a variable cost. This treatment involves manager judgment and depends on the width of the relevant range and the expected volume. To illustrate, suppose after the production of every 25 snowboards, an operator lubricates the finishing machine. The cost of this lubricant reflects a step-wise pattern. Also, suppose that after the production of every 1,000 units, the snowboard cutting tool is replaced. Again, this is a step-wise cost. Note that the relevant range of 25 snowboards is much narrower than the relevant range of 1,000 snowboards. Some managers might treat the lubricant cost as a variable cost and the cutting tool cost as a fixed cost.
Total cost increases to a new higher cost for the next higher range of activity, but remains constant within a range of activity.
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11. Curvilinear Costs
As shown earlier, variable costs increase at a constant rate as the volume of activity increases. For example, a salesperson’s commission of 7% of sales volume would increase at a constant rate as sales volume increases. Curvilinear costs also increase as volume increases, but at a nonconstant rate. The curved line in this slide shows a curvilinear cost beginning at zero (when production is zero) and increasing at different rates as volume increases.
An example of a curvilinear cost is total direct labor cost when workers are paid by the hour. For example, a company might add new employees assigned to specialize in certain tasks. When production levels are relatively low, adding those specialized employees often yields more output. This is reflected in a flatter slope in the curvilinear cost graph shown. At some point, however, adding still more employees creates inefficiencies (they get in each other’s way); this inefficiency is reflected in a steeper slope for the curvilinear cost graph. In CVP analysis, curvilinear costs are often treated as variable costs, within a relevant range. This is reasonable for most types of curvilinear costs.
Review what you have learned in the following NEED-TO-KNOW Slides.
Costs that increase when activity increases, but in a nonlinear manner.
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12. Measuring Cost Behavior
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13. Measuring Cost Behavior
The objective is to classify all costs as either fixed or variable. We will look at three methods:
Scatter diagrams.
The high-low method.
Least–squares regression.
A scatter diagram is a plot of cost data points on a graph. It is almost always helpful to plot cost data to be able to observe a visual picture of the relationship between cost and activity.
Identifying and measuring cost behavior requires careful analysis and judgment. An important part of this process is to identify costs that can be classified as either fixed or variable, which often requires analysis of past cost behavior. A goal of classifying costs is to develop a cost equation. The cost equation expresses total costs as a function of fixed costs plus variable cost per unit. Three methods are commonly used to analyze past costs: scatter diagrams, the high-low method, and least-squares regression.
Scatter diagrams - display past cost and unit data in graphical form. In preparing a scatter diagram, units are plotted on the horizontal axis, and costs are plotted on the vertical axis. Each individual point on a scatter diagram reflects the cost and number of units for a prior period.
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14. Scatter Diagrams P 1 Atef Abuelaish
In this graph, the prior 12 months’ costs and numbers of units are graphed. Each point reflects total costs incurred and units produced for one of those months. For instance, the point labeled March had units produced of 25,000 and costs of $25,000.
The estimated line of cost behavior is drawn on a scatter diagram to reflect the relation between cost and unit volume. This line best visually “fits” the points in a scatter diagram. Fitting this line demands judgment, or can be done with spreadsheet software.
The line drawn in the graph intersects the vertical axis at approximately $16,000, which reflects fixed cost. To compute variable cost per unit, or the slope, we perform three steps. First, we select any two points on the horizontal axis (units), say zero and 40,000. Second, we draw a vertical line from each of these points to intersect the estimated line of cost behavior. The point on the vertical axis (cost) corresponding to the 40,000 units point that intersects the estimated line is roughly $24,000. Similarly, the cost corresponding to zero units is $16,000 (the fixed cost point). Third, we compute the slope of the line, or variable cost, as the change in cost divided by the change in units.
The equation shows this computation. Variable cost is $0.20 per unit. Thus, the cost equation that management will use to estimate costs for different unit levels is $16,000 plus $0.20 per unit produced.
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15. The High-Low Method
The following relationships between units produced and total cost are observed:
Using these two levels of activity, compute:
the variable cost per unit.
the total fixed cost.
The high-low method is a way to estimate the cost equation using just two points: the highest and lowest volume levels. The high-low method follows these steps:
Step 1: Identify the highest and lowest volume levels. It is important to note that these might not be the highest or lowest levels of costs.
Step 2: Compute the slope (variable cost per unit) using the high and low activity levels.
Step 3: Compute the total fixed costs by computing the total variable cost at either the high or low activity level, and then subtracting that amount from the total cost at that activity level.
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16. Total cost = $17,525 + $0.17 per unit produced
The High-Low Method
We illustrate the high-low method here.
Step 1: In our case, the lowest number of units is 17,500, and the highest is 67,500. The costs corresponding to these unit volumes are $20,500 and $29,000, respectively (see prior slide for data).
Step 2: The variable cost per unit is calculated using a simple formula: the change in cost divided by the change in units. Using the data from the high and low unit volumes, this results in a slope, or variable cost per unit, of $0.17 as computed in this slide.
Step 3: To estimate the fixed cost for the high-low method, we use the knowledge that total cost equals fixed cost plus variable cost per unit times the number of units. Then we pick either the high or low point to determine the fixed cost. This computation is shown above — where we use the high point (67,500 units) in determining the fixed cost of $17,525. (Use of the low point yields the same fixed cost estimate.)
Thus, the cost equation from the high-low method is $17,525 plus $0.17 per unit produced. This cost equation differs slightly from that determined from the scatter diagram method. A weakness of the high-low method is that it ignores all cost points except the highest and lowest volume levels.
Total cost = $17, $0.17 per unit produced
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17. Comparison of Cost Estimation Methods
The three cost estimation methods result in slightly different estimates of fixed and variable costs as summarized in this slide. Estimates from the scatter diagram, unless done with spreadsheet software, are based on a visual fit of the cost line and are subject to interpretation. Estimates from the high-low method use only two sets of values corresponding to the lowest and highest unit volumes. Sometimes these two extreme activity levels do not reflect the more usual conditions likely to recur. Estimates from least-squares regression use a statistical technique and all available data points.
We must remember that all three methods use past data. Thus, cost estimates resulting from these methods are only as good as the data used for estimation. Managers must establish that the data are reliable in deriving cost estimates for the future. If the data are reliable, the use of more data points, as in the regression or scatter diagram methods, should yield more accurate estimates than the high-low method. However, the high-low method is easier to apply and thus might be useful for obtaining a quick cost equation estimate.
Review what you have learned in the following NEED-TO-KNOW Slides.
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18. Contribution Margin and Its Measures
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19. Contribution Margin and Its Measures
CVP analysis requires managers to classify costs as being fixed or variable with respect to volume of activity. In manufacturing companies, volume of activity usually refers to the number of units produced. We then classify a cost as either fixed or variable, depending on whether total cost changes as the number of units produced changes. Once we classify costs by behavior, we can then compute a product’s contribution margin. Contribution margin per unit, or unit contribution margin, is the amount by which a product’s unit selling price exceeds its total variable cost per unit. This amount contributes to covering fixed costs and generating profits. The top graphic shows the formula used to calculate contribution margin per unit.
Another way to calculate contribution margin is as a ratio. The contribution margin ratio, which is the percent of a unit’s selling price that exceeds total unit variable cost, is also useful for business decisions. It can be interpreted as the percent of each sales dollar that remains after deducting the total unit variable cost. The second graphic shows the formula for the contribution margin ratio.
To illustrate the use of contribution margin, let’s consider Rydell, which sells footballs for $100 each and incurs variable costs of $70 per football sold. Its fixed costs are $24,000 per month with monthly capacity of 1,800 units (footballs). Rydell’s contribution margin per unit is $30, which is computed as shown.
Thus, at a selling price of $100 per unit, Rydell covers its variable costs and makes $30 per football to contribute to fixed costs and profit. Rydell’s contribution margin ratio is 30%, computed as $30/$100. A contribution margin ratio of 30% implies that for each $1 in sales, Rydell has $0.30 that contributes to fixed cost and profit.
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20. Computing the Break-Even Point
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21. Using Break-Even Analysis
The break-even point (expressed in units of product or dollars of sales) is the unique sales level at which a company earns neither a profit nor incurs a loss.
The break-even point is the sales level at which a company neither earns a profit nor incurs a loss. The concept of break-even applies to nearly all organizations, activities, and events. A key concern when launching a project is whether it will break even—that is, whether sales will at least cover total costs. The break-even point can be expressed in either units or dollars of sales.
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22. Computing the Break-Even Point
To illustrate break-even analysis, let’s again look at Rydell, which sells footballs for $100 per unit and incurs $70 of variable costs per unit sold. Its fixed costs are $24,000 per month. We compute the break-even point using the formula in this slide. This formula uses the contribution margin per unit (calculated above), which for Rydell is $30 ($100 - $70). From this we can compute the break-even sales volume in units as follows:
If Rydell sells 800 units, its profit will be zero. Profit increases or decreases by $30 for every unit sold above or below that break-even point; if Rydell sells 801 units, profit will equal $30. We also can calculate the break-even point in dollars. Also called break-even sales dollars, it uses the contribution margin ratio to determine the required sales dollars needed for the company to break even.
The second graphic shows the formula and Rydell’s break-even point in dollars.
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23. Computing the Margin of Safety
All companies wish to sell more than the break-even number of units. The excess of expected sales over the break-even sales level is called a company’s margin of safety, the amount that sales can drop before the company incurs a loss. It is often expressed in dollars or as a percent of the expected sales level.
To illustrate, recall that Rydell’s break-even point in dollars is $80,000. If its expected sales are $100,000, the margin of safety is $20,000 ($100,000 - $80,000). As a percent, the margin of safety is 20% of expected sales as shown in this slide.
Management must assess whether the margin of safety is adequate in light of factors such as sales variability, competition, consumer tastes, and economic conditions.
Review what you have learned in the following NEED-TO-KNOW Slides.
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24. Preparing a Cost-Volume-Profit Chart
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25. Preparing a CVP Chart P 3 Atef Abuelaish
This slide shows is a graph of Rydell’s cost-volume-profit relations. This graph is called a cost-volume-profit (CVP) chart, or a break-even chart or break-even graph. The horizontal axis is the number of units produced and sold, and the vertical axis is dollars of sales and costs. The lines in the chart depict both sales and costs at different output levels.
We follow three steps to prepare a CVP chart:
1. Plot fixed costs on the vertical axis ($24,000 for Rydell). Draw a horizontal line at this level to show that fixed costs remain unchanged regardless of output volume (drawing this fixed cost line is not essential to the chart).
2. Draw the total (variable plus fixed) cost line for a relevant range of volume levels. This line starts at the fixed costs level on the vertical axis because total costs equal fixed costs at zero volume. The slope of the total cost line equals the variable cost per unit ($70). To draw the line, compute the total costs for any volume level, and connect this point with the vertical axis intercept ($24,000). Do not draw this line beyond the productive capacity for the planning period (1,800 units for Rydell).
3. Draw the sales line. Start at the origin (zero units and zero dollars of sales) and make the slope of this line equal to the selling price per unit ($100). To draw the line, compute dollar sales for any volume level and connect this point with the origin. Do not extend this line beyond the productive capacity. Total sales will be highest at maximum capacity.
The total cost line and the sales line intersect at 800 units in Exhibit 5.15, which is the break-even point—the point where total dollar sales of $80,000 equals the sum of both fixed and variable costs ($80,000).
On either side of the break-even point, the vertical distance between the sales line and the total cost line at any specific volume reflects the profit or loss expected at that point. At volume levels to the left of the break-even point, this vertical distance is the amount of the expected loss because the total costs line is above the total sales line. At volume levels to the right of the break-even point, the vertical distance represents the expected profit because the total sales line is above the total cost line.
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26. Computing a Multiproduct Break-Even Point
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27. Computing a Multiproduct Break-Even Point
The CVP formulas can be modified for use when a company sells more than one product.
The unit contribution margin is replaced with the contribution margin for a composite unit.
A composite unit is composed of specific numbers of each product in proportion to the product sales mix.
Sales mix is the ratio of the volumes of the various products.
So far we have looked only at cases where the company sells a single product or service. However, many companies sell multiple products or services, and we can modify the CVP analysis for use in these cases. An important assumption in a multiproduct setting is that the sales mix of different products is known and remains constant during the planning period. Sales mix is the ratio (proportion) of the sales volumes for the various products.
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28. Computing a Multiproduct Break-Even Point
The resulting break-even formula for composite unit sales is:
Fixed costs Contribution margin per composite unit
Break-even point in composite units =
In multiproduct CVP analysis, we estimate the break-even point by using a composite unit, which summarizes the sales mix and contribution margins of each product. Multiproduct CVP analysis treats this composite unit as a single product.
Continue
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29. Computing a Multiproduct Break-Even Point
Hair-Today offers three cuts as shown below. Annual fixed costs are $192,000. Compute the break-even point in composite units and in number of units for each haircut at the given sales mix.
To illustrate, let’s look at Hair-Today, a styling salon that offers three cuts: basic, ultra, and budget in the ratio of four basic units to two ultra units to one budget unit (expressed as 4:2:1). Management wants to estimate its break-even point for next year. Unit selling prices for these three cuts are basic, $20; ultra, $32; and budget, $16. Using the 4:2:1 sales mix, the selling price of a composite unit of the three products is computed as shown.
Hair-Today’s fixed costs are $192,000 per year, and its unit variable costs of the three products are basic, $13; ultra, $18; and budget, $8.
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30. Computing a Multiproduct Break-Even Point
Using the 4:2:1 sales mix, the selling price of a composite unit of the three products is computed as shown.
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31. Computing a Multiproduct Break-Even Point
Hair-Today’s fixed costs are $192,000 per year, and its unit variable costs of the three products are basic, $13; ultra, $18; and budget, $8. Variable costs for a composite unit of these products is shown.
We calculate the contribution margin for a composite unit using essentially the same formula used earlier as shown.
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32. Computing a Multiproduct Break-Even Point
Break-even point in composite units
Fixed costs Contribution margin per composite unit =
Break-even point in composite units
$192,000 $64.00 per composite unit =
= 3,000 composite units
We calculate the contribution margin for a composite unit using essentially the same formula used earlier, as shown in this slide. We then use the contribution margin per composite unit to determine Hair-Today’s break-even point in composite units as shown.
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33. Computing a Multiproduct Break-Even Point
This computation implies that Hair-Today breaks even when it sells 3,000 composite units. To determine how many units of each product it must sell to break even, we use the expected sales mix of 4:2:1 and multiply the number of units of each product in the composite by 3,000 as follows.
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34. Multiproduct Break-Even Income Statement
This slide verifies the results for composite units by showing Hair-Today’s sales and costs at this break-even point using a forecasted contribution margin income statement.
A CVP analysis using composite units can be used to answer a variety of planning questions. Once a product mix is set, all answers are based on the assumption that the mix remains constant at all relevant sales levels as other factors in the analysis do. If the sales mix changes, it is likely that the break-even point will change also. For example, if Hair-Today sells more ultra cuts and fewer basic cuts, its break-even point will decrease. We can vary the sales mix to see what happens under alternative strategies.
Review what you have learned in the following NEED-TO-KNOW Slides.
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35. Break for Minutes

36. Chapter 06 Variable Costing and
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37. Variable Costing and Analysis
Chapter 06
Variable Costing and Analysis
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38. Compute unit cost under both absorption and variable costing.
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39. Absorption Costing & Variable Costing
Absorption costing (also called full costing), assumes that products absorb all costs incurred to produce them.
While widely used for financial reporting (GAAP), this costing method can result in misleading product cost information for managers’ business decisions.
Absorption costing (also called full costing), assumes that products absorb all costs incurred to produce them. While widely used for financial reporting (GAAP), this costing method can result in misleading product cost information for managers’ business decisions.
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40. Absorption Costing & Variable Costing
Under variable costing, only costs
that change in total with changes in
production level are included in
product costs.
Under variable costing, only costs that change in total with changes in production level are included in product costs. They consist of direct materials, direct labor, and variable overhead.
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41. Distinguishing between Absorption Costing and Variable Costing: Absorption Costing
Direct Materials
Direct Labor
Variable Overhead
Fixed
Overhead
Product costs generally consists of direct materials, direct labor, and overhead. Costs of both direct materials and direct labor usually are easily traced to specific products. Overhead costs, however, must be allocated to products because they cannot be traced to product units. Under absorption costing, all overhead costs, both fixed and variable, are allocated to products as the diagram on this slide shows.
Product Cost
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42. Distinguishing between Absorption Costing and Variable Costing: Variable Costing
Direct Materials
Direct Labor
Variable Overhead
Fixed Overhead
Under variable costing, the costs of direct materials and direct labor are also traced to products, but only variable overhead costs (not fixed overhead) are allocated to products. Fixed overhead costs are treated as period costs and are reported as an expense immediately in the period in which they are incurred.
Product Cost
Period Cost
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43. Difference between Absorption Costing and Variable Costing: Computing Unit Cost
Let’s look at Ice Age, a skate manufacturer, to help us to understand the difference between absorption and variable costing. In Exhibit 6.2 we can see the product cost data for the company. Direct material cost per unit is $4. Direct labor cost is $8. The overhead is split between variable and fixed. The total units that IceAge expects to manufacture this period is 60,000 units. Keep your eye on the fixed overhead of $600,000 …that is the key difference between absorption costing and variable costing…The next slide will depict how the two different costing methods treats fixed overhead…
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44. Difference between Absorption Costing and Variable Costing: Computing Unit Cost
Variable OH cost per unit:
$180,000/ 60,000 units = $3/unit
Fixed OH cost per unit:
$600,000/ 60,000 units = $10/unit
Exhibit 6.3 shows the product unit cost computations for both absorption and variable costing. For absorption costing, the product unit cost is $25, which consists of $4 in direct materials, $8 in direct labor, $3 in variable overhead ($180,000/60,000 units), and $10 in fixed overhead ($600,000/60,000 units).
For variable costing, the product unit cost is $15, which consists of $4 in direct materials, $8 in direct labor, and $3 in variable overhead. Fixed overhead costs of $600,000 are treated as a period cost and are recorded as an expense in the period incurred. The difference between the two costing methods is the exclusion of fixed overhead from product costs for variable costing.
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45. NEED-TO-KNOW A manufacturer reports the following data. P 1
Direct materials 
$6.00
 per unit
Direct labor
$14.00
 per unit
Overhead costs:
Variable overhead
$220,000
 per year
$220,000 / 20,000 units = $11 per unit
Fixed overhead
$680,000
 per year
$680,000 / 20,000 units = $34 per unit
Expected units produced
20,000
 units
1) Compute the total product cost per unit under absorption costing.
2) Compute the total product cost per unit under variable costing.
$6.00
$6.00
$14.00
$14.00
Need-to-Know 6.1
A manufacturer reports the following data. Compute the total product cost per unit under absorption costing.
Under absorption costing, the product cost includes all manufacturing costs:
Direct materials, $6 per unit; Direct labor, $14 per unit; Variable overhead, $220,000 divided by 20,000
units, $11 per unit; and Fixed overhead, $680,000 divided by 20,000 units produced, $34 per unit.
The total cost per unit under absorption costing is $65.
Compute the total product cost per unit under variable costing.
Under variable costing, the product cost includes only the variable manufacturing costs:
Direct materials, $6 per unit; Direct labor, $14 per unit; and Variable overhead, $11 per unit.
The total cost per unit under variable costing is $31.
Fixed overhead of $680,000 is expensed in the current period.
$31.00 per unit
$11.00
$11.00
$65.00 per unit
$34.00
$34.00
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46. Prepare and analyze an income statement using absorption costing and using variable costing.
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47. Analysis of Income Reporting for Both Absorption and Variable Costing
Now let’s look at how variable and absorption costing determine income. Assume that Ice Age’s variable costs per unit are constant and that its annual fixed costs remain unchanged during the three-year period 2013 through Let’s assume that its sales price was a constant $40 per unit over this time period.
We see that the units produced equal those sold for 2013, but exceed those sold for 2013, and are less than those sold for 2015.
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48. Analysis of Income Reporting for Absorption Costing: Units Produced Equal Units Sold
Notice that the net income is $580,000
Exhibit 6.4 is split and is shown on two slides. This slide shows the absorption costing income statement, and expenses are grouped according to function.
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49. Analysis of Income Reporting for Variable Costing: Units Produced Equal Units Sold
We can see that the income under variable costing is also $580,000. This is because the number of units produced are equal to the number of units sold.
This slide shows the variable costing income statement. This format is referred to as the contribution margin income statement with expenses grouped according to cost behavior. As was seen on the previous slide that depicted absorption costing, the net income is also $580,000. This is because when the quantity produced equals the quantity sold, the net income amounts will be identical under both the absorption and variable costing methods.
A performance report that excludes fixed expenses and net income is a contribution margin report. It’s bottom line is contribution margin. Let’s take a look at one on the next slide.
A performance report that excludes fixed expenses and net income is a contribution margin report. It’s bottom line is contribution margin.
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50. Analysis of Income Reporting for Both Absorption and Variable Costing: Units Produced Equal Units Sold
Exhibit 6.5 reorganizes the information from Exhibit 6.4 to show the assignment of costs to different expenses and assets under both absorption costing and variable costing. When quantity produced equals quantity sold, there is no difference in total expenses reported on the income statement. Yet, there is a difference in what categories receive those costs. Absorption costing assigns $1,500,000 to cost of goods sold compared to $900,000 for variable costing. The $600,000 of fixed overhead difference is a period cost for variable costing.
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51. Analysis of Income Reporting for Absorption Costing: Units Produced Exceed Units Sold
Using absorption costing there will still be 20,000 units in ending inventory but the net income reported in 2014 will be $200,000 higher. The cause of this $200,000 difference rests with the different treatment of fixed overhead under the two costing methods. Let’s investigate this further.
Income for 2014 is $320,000
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52. Analysis of Income Reporting for Variable Costing: Units Produced Exceed Units Sold
Under variable costing, the net income is only $120,000
This slide shows the variable costing income statement for 2014 that we saw earlier in the presentation.
Under variable costing, the net income was $120,000, which is $200,000 less than under absorption costing. As mentioned on a previous slide, the cause of this $200,000 difference rests with the treatment of fixed overhead under the two costing methods.
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53. Analysis of Income Reporting for Absorption Costing: Units Produced Are Less Than Units Sold
By now you should be able to predict what will happen if units produced are less than units sold. let’s look at IceAge’s 2015 income statement under absorption costing where the units produced are less than the units sold. In 2015, IceAge produced 60,000 units and sold 80,000 units. Thus, IceAge produced 20,000 units fewer than it sold. This means the company sold all that it produced during the period and it sold all of its beginning finished goods inventory as well.
Income is now $840,000
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54. Analysis of Income Reporting for Variable Costing: Units Produced Are Less Than Units Sold
IceAge’s income reported for 2015 under variable costing is $200,000 more than that under absorption costing. The income statements reveal that income is $840,000 under absorption costing, but it is $1,040,000 under variable costing.
The cause of this $200,000 difference lies with the treatment of fixed overhead. Beginning inventory in 2015 under absorption costing included $200,000 of fixed overhead cost incurred in 2014 but is assigned to cost of goods sold in 2015 under absorption costing.
Income under variable costing is $1,040,000
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55. Summarizing Income Reporting
Let’s look at a summary of IceAge’s income over the last three years under both absorption and variable costing. Income reported under both variable costing and absorption costing for the period 2013 through 2015 for IceAge is summarized in Exhibit We see that total income is $1,740,000 for this time period underboth methods. Further, income under absorption costing and that under variable costing differ whenever the quantity produced and the quantity sold differ. These differences are due to the different timing with which fixed overhead costs are reported in income under the two methods. Specifically, income under absorption costing is higher when more units are produced relative to sales, and is lower when fewer units are produced than are sold. In our illustration using IceAge, the total number of units produced over was exactly equal to the number of units sold over that period. This meant that the difference between absorption costing income and variable costing income for the total three-year period is zero. In reality, it is unusual for production and sales quantities to exactly equal each other over such a short period of time. This means that we normally will continue to see differences in income for these two methods extending over several years.
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56. Convert income under variable costing to the absorption cost basis.
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57. Converting Reports under Variable Costing to Absorption Costing
Income under variable costing is restated to that under absorption costing utilizing the following formula:
Exhibit Converting Variable Costing Income to Absorption Costing Income
Income under
Absorption costing
Given the advantages of both variable costing and absorption costing, we need to apply and understand both methods. For example, companies commonly use variable costing for internal reporting and business decisions and they use absorption costing for external reporting and tax reporting. For companies concerned about the cost of maintaining two costing systems, it is comforting to know that we can readily convert reports under variable costing to those using absorption costing. Income under variable costing is restated to that under absorption costing by adding the fixed cost in ending inventory and subtracting the fixed cost in beginning inventory. The formula for this calculation is shown here in Exhibit 6.11 =
Income under
variable costing +
Fixed overhead cost in ending inventory ▬
Fixed overhead cost in beginning inventory
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58. Converting Reports under Variable Costing to Absorption Costing
To restate variable costing income to absorption costing income for 2014, we must add back the fixed overhead cost deferred in ending inventory.
To illustrate how easy it is to convert income from variable costing to absorption costing, let’s again refer to IceAge’s data for the three years 2013 through 2015 which is shown here in Exhibit 6.12.
If we focus our attention on 2014, absorption costing income was $200,000 higher than variable costing income. The $200,000 difference was because the fixed overhead cost incurred in 2014 was allocated to the 20,000 units of ending inventory under absorption costing (and not expensed in 2014 under absorption costing). On the other hand, the $200,000 fixed overhead costs (along with all other fixed costs) were expensed in 2014 under variable costing.
Exhibit 6.12 shows the computations for restating income under the two costing methods. To restate variable costing income to absorption costing income for 2014, we must add back the fixed overhead cost deferred in ending inventory. Similarly, to restate variable costing income to absorption costing income for 2015, we must deduct the fixed overhead cost recognized from beginning inventory, which was incurred in 2014, but expensed in the 2015 cost of goods sold when the inventory was sold.
Similarly, to restate variable costing income to absorption costing income for 2015, we must deduct the fixed overhead cost recognized from beginning inventory, which was incurred in 2014, but expensed in the 2015 cost of goods sold when the inventory was sold.
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59. Describe how absorption costing can result in overproduction.
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60. Planning Production: Income under Absorption Costing for Different Production Levels
Why is income under absorption costing affected by the production level when that for variable costing is not?
The answer lies in the different
treatment of fixed overhead
costs within the two methods.
So…under absorption costing, if excess units are produced, the fixed overhead cost allocated to those units is not expensed until a future period when those units are sold.
Why is income under absorption costing affected by the production level when that for variable costing is not? The answer lies in the different treatment of fixed overhead costs within the two methods. Under absorption costing, fixed overhead per unit is lower when 100,000 units are produced than when 60,000 units are produced, and then fixed overhead cost is allocated to more units—recall Exhibit If those excess units produced are not sold, the fixed overhead cost allocated to those units is not expensed until a future period when those units are sold.
Reported income under variable costing, on the other hand, is not affected by production level changes because all fixed production costs are expensed in the year when incurred. Under variable costing, companies increase reported income by selling more units—it is not possible to increase income just by producing more units and creating excess inventory. The following three slides will reflect this. Let’s take a look.
Exactly!
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61. Planning Production
What would happen if IceAge’s manager decided to produce 100,000 units instead of 60,000?
The 40,000 extra units would be stored in inventory and the total production cost PER UNIT is $4 less!
What would happen if IceAge’s manager decided to produce 100,000 units instead of 60,000? The 40,000 extra units would be stored in inventory. What would the income look like? The left side of Exhibit 6.13 shows the unit cost when 60,000 units are produced. The right side shows unit costs when 100,000 units are produced. The exhibit is prepared under absorption costing for Total production cost per unit is $4 less when 100,000 units are produced. Specifically, cost per unit is $21 when 100,000 units are produced versus $25 per unit at 60,000 units. The reason for this difference is because the company is spreading the $600,000 fixed overhead cost over more units when 100,000 units are produced than when 60,000 are produced.
The difference in cost per unit carries over to performance reporting. Exhibit 6.14, on the next slide, presents the income statement under absorption costing for the two alternative production levels.
When 60,000 units are produced:
Fixed overhead per unit is:
$600,000/ 60,000 units = $10/unit
When 100,000 units are produced:
Fixed overhead per unit is:
$600,000/ 100,000 units = $6/unit
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62. Planning Production: Income under Absorption Costing for Different Production Levels
Common sense suggests that, because the company’s variable cost per unit, total fixed costs, and sales are identical in both cases, merely producing more units and creating excess ending inventory should not increase income. Yet, as we see in Exhibit 6.14, income under absorption costing is $240,000 greater if management produces 40,000 more units than necessary and builds up ending inventory. The reason is that $240,000 of fixed overhead (40,000 units x $6) is assigned to ending inventory instead of being expensed in This shows that a manager can report increased income merely by producing more and disregarding whether the excess units can be sold or not.
Note: Income under absorption costing is $240,000 greater if management produces 40,000 more units than necessary and builds up ending inventory.
This shows that a manager can report increased income merely by producing more and disregarding whether the excess units can be sold or not.
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63. Planning Production: Income under Variable Costing for Different Production Levels
Manager bonuses are tied to income computed under absorption costing for many companies. Accordingly, these managers may be enticed to increase production that increases income and their bonuses. This incentive problem encourages inventory build-up, which leads to increased costs in storage, financing, and obsolescence. If the excess inventory is never sold, it will be disposed of at a loss.
This is not the case when variable costing is used in a company. Exhibit 6.15 shows that managers cannot increase income by merely increasing production without increasing sales. Under variable costing, companies increase reported income by selling more units—it is not possible to increase income just by producing more units and creating excess inventory.
Under variable costing, even if I produce more units, it doesn’t effect the reported net income.
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I actually have to SELL more units to increase my net income.
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64. Determine product selling price based on absorption costing.
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65. How does management determine the sales price of a product?
Absorption cost information is useful because it reflects the full costs that sales must exceed for the company to be profitable.
Although many factors impact pricing, cost is a crucial factor!
Over the long run, price must be high enough to cover all costs.
Setting prices for products and services is one of the more complex and important managerial decisions. Although many factors impact pricing, cost is a crucial factor. Cost information from both absorption costing and variable costing can aid managers in pricing.
Over the long run, price must be high enough to cover all costs, including variable costs and fixed costs, and still provide an acceptable return to owners. For this purpose, absorption cost information is useful because it reflects the full costs that sales must exceed for the company to be profitable.
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66. We can use a three-step process to determine product selling prices:
Step 1: Determine the product cost per unit using absorption costing.
Step 2: Determine the target markup on product cost per unit.
Step 3: Add the target markup to the product cost to find the target selling price
We can use a three-step process to determine product selling prices:
Step 1: Determine the product cost per unit using absorption costing.
Step 2: Determine the target markup on product cost per unit.
Step 3: Add the target markup to the product cost to find the target selling price
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67. 1) Start with product cost.
Example: IceAge will use absorption costing to determine a target selling price.
Exhibit 6.16 Determining Selling Price with Absorption Costing
Step 1
Absorption cost per unit (from Exhibit 6.3)
$25
Step 2
Target markup per unit ($25 times 60%) 15
Step 3
Target selling price per unit
$40
To illustrate, consider IceAge. Under absorption costing, its product cost is $25 per unit (from Exhibit 6.3). IceAge’s management must then determine a target markup on this product cost. This target markup could be based on industry averages, prices that have been charged in the past, or other information. In addition, this markup must be set high enough to cover selling and administrative expenses (both variable and fixed) that are excluded from product costs. In this example, IceAge targets a markup of 60% of absorption cost. With that information, the company computes a target selling price as in Exhibit 6.16 of $40 per unit. IceAge can use this target selling price as a starting point in setting prices.
3) In this example, they chose a markup of 60% of cost. So the target selling price is $40 per unit.
1) Start with product cost.
2) Then, management needs to determine a target markup.
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68. Use variable costing in pricing special orders.
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69. Setting Prices (Special Orders Illustration)
Should the company accept a special order for 1,000 pairs of skates at an offer price of $22 per pair?
Let’s go back to IceAge to see how we can use our knowledge of variable costing in a special order decision. To illustrate, let’s return to the data of IceAge Company and examine Exhibit Recall that its variable production cost per unit is $15 ($4 DM + $8 DL + $3 VOH) and its total production cost per unit is $25 (at production level of 60,000 units). Assume that it receives a special order for 1,000 pairs of skates at an offer price of $22 per pair from a foreign skating school. This special order will not affect IceAge’s regular sales and its plant has excess capacity to fill the order.
Drawing on absorption costing information, we observe that cost is $25 per unit and that the special order price is $22 per unit. These data would suggest that management would reject the order as it would lose $3,000, computed as 1,000 units at $3 loss per pair ($22-$25).
However, closer analysis suggests that this order should be accepted. This is because the $22 order price exceeds the $15 variable cost of the product. Specifically, Exhibit 6.17 reveals that the incremental revenue from accepting the order is $22,000 (1,000 units at $22 per unit) whereas the incremental production cost of the order is $15,000 (1,000 units at $15 per unit) and the incremental variable selling and administrative cost is $2,000 (1,000 units at $2 per unit). Thus, both the contribution margin and net income would increase by $5,000 from accepting the order. We see that variable costing reveals this opportunity while absorption costing hides it. The reason for increased income from accepting the special order lies in the different behavior of variable and fixed production costs. We see that if the order is rejected, only variable costs are saved. Fixed costs, on the other hand, do not change in the short run regardless of rejecting or accepting this order. Since incremental revenue from the order exceeds incremental costs (only variable costs in this case), accepting the special order increases company income.
Variable production cost = $15 ($4DM + $8DL + $3 VOH)
Order should be accepted because the $22 order price exceeds the $15 variable cost of the product.
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70. Due Date to Follow
Home Work Group 1 CH 13 & 1 to 5 Due on 7/23 at 11:59 PM for 360 Points.
Home Work Group 2 CH 6 11Due on 8/8 at 11:59 PM for 360 Points for 360 Points.
QUIZ # 1 Due on 7/23 at 11:59 PM for 10 Points.
QUIZ # 2 Due on 7/23 at 11:59 PM for 10 Points.
QUIZ # 3 Due on 8/8 at 11:59 PM for 10 Points.
QUIZ # 4 Due on 8/8 at 11:59 PM for 10 Points.
EXAM # 1 Due on 7/18 at 8:00 PM for 60 Points.
EXAM # 2 Due on 7/27 at 8:00 PM for 60 Points.
EXAM # 3 Due on 8/8 at 8:00 PM for 60 Points.
FINAL COURSE EXAM ON 8/9 IN CLASS 6 TO 9 PM for 60 Points.
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71. Happiness is having all homework up to date
Homework assignment
Using Connect – 8 Questions for 60 Points; Chapter 5.
Using Connect – 8 Questions for 60 Points; Chapter 6.
QUIZ 02 for 10 Points; 7/19 till 7/23 at 11:59 PM.
Prepare chapter 7 “Master Budgets and Performance Planning.”
Happiness is having all homework up to date
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72. Thank you and See You Next Week at the Same Time, Take Care
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