1. Chapter 1 Introduction to Chemistry by Christopher G. Hamaker
Illinois State University 1

2. Evolution of Chemistry
The Greeks believed in four basic elements:
1. Air
Fire
Water
Earth
All substances were combinations of these four basic elements.
Ancient chemistry was based on speculation, whereas modern chemistry is based on planned experiments, aka, scientific method.

3. The Scientific Method
Science is the methodical exploration of nature followed by a logical explanation of the observations.
An experiment involves scientists who explore nature according to a planned strategy and make observations under controlled conditions.

4. The Scientific Method, Continued
The scientific method is a systematic investigation of nature and requires proposing an explanation for the results of an experiment in the form of a general principle.
The initial, tentative proposal of a scientific principle is called a hypothesis.
After further investigation, the original hypothesis may be rejected, revised, or elevated to the status of a scientific principle.

5. Applying the Scientific Method
Step 1: Perform a planned experiment, make observations, and record data.
Step 2: Analyze the data and propose a tentative hypothesis to explain the experimental observations.
Step 3: Conduct additional experiments to test the hypothesis. If the evidence supports the initial proposal, the hypothesis may become a scientific theory.

6. Applying the Scientific Method, Continued
After sufficient evidence, a hypothesis becomes a scientific theory.
A natural law states a measurable relationship.

8. Modern Chemistry
Chemistry is a science that studies the composition of matter and its properties.
Chemistry is divided into several branches:
Organic chemistry is the study of substances containing carbon.
Inorganic chemistry is the study of all other substances that don’t contain carbon.
Biochemistry is the study of substances derived from plants and animals.
Green chemistry is the design of chemical processes that reduce waste and hazardous substances

9. Chemistry Connection: “Worth Your Salt?”
Salt was once so valuable, it was used to pay Roman soldiers
Table salt is obtained by three major processes:
Salt Mining
Solution Mining
Solar Evaporation of Salt Water
Table salt is necessary for the human body, but too much can cause high blood pressure

10. Learning Chemistry Different people learn chemistry differently.
What do you see in the picture?
Some people see a vase on a dark background; some people see two faces.

11. Problem Solving Connect the dots using only four straight lines.
Experiment until you find a solution.

12. Problem Solving, Continued
Connect the dots using only four straight lines.
Experiment until you find a solution.
Did you have to use five straight lines?
No matter which dot we start with, we still need five lines.

13. Problem Solving, Continued
Are we confining the problem?
We need to go beyond the nine dots to answer the problem.

14. Chemistry: The Central Science
Knowledge of chemistry is important to understanding the world around us.

15. Chemistry: The Central Science
It is central to our fundamental understanding of many science-related fields.

16. Chemistry Connection: A Student Success
In 1886, pure aluminum metal cost over $100,000 per pound.
Charles Hall and Paul Héroult both independently discovered a method for obtaining pure aluminum from aluminum ore.
The industrial process for obtaining aluminum metal is referred to as the Hall-Héroult process.
Today, pure aluminum costs less than $1 per pound.
New solvent-fused cryolite, Na3AlF6. 

17. Chapter Summary
Scientists use the scientific method to investigate the world around them.
Experiments lead to a hypothesis, which may lead to a scientific theory or a natural law.
Chemistry is a central science with many branches.
The impact of chemistry is felt in many aspects of our daily lives.

18. Interlude Prerequisite Science Skills by Christopher G. Hamaker
Illinois State University
© 2014 Pearson Education, Inc. 18

19. Measurements A measurement is a number with a unit attached.
Every measurement has a degree of inexactness, termed uncertainty.
We will generally use metric system units. These include:
The centimeter, cm, for length measurements
The gram, g, for mass measurements
The milliliter, mL, for volume measurements
For units there are two major systems, English system used in United States and Metric system used by rest of the world.
In 1960 scientific community agreed to adapt units by System International or SI units which are based on metric system..

20. Length Measurements Let’s measure the length of a candy cane.
Ruler A has 1-cm divisions, so we can estimate the length to ± 0.1 cm. The length is 4.2 ± 0.1 cm.
Ruler B has 0.1-cm divisions, so we can estimate the length to ± 0.05 cm. The length is 4.25 ± 0.05 cm.

21. Uncertainty in Length Ruler A: 4.2 ± 0.1 cm; Ruler B: 4.25 ± 0.05 cm.
Ruler A has more uncertainty than Ruler B.
Ruler B gives a more precise measurement.

22. Mass Measurements
The mass of an object is a measure of the amount of matter it affected.
Mass is measured with a balance and is not affected by gravity.
Mass and weight are not interchangeable.
Mass is a measure of the amount of material in an object

23. Volume Measurements
Volume is the amount of space occupied by a solid, a liquid, or a gas.
There are several instruments for measuring volume, including:
Graduated cylinder
Syringe
Buret
Pipet
Volumetric flask

24. Significant Digits
Each number in a properly recorded measurement is a significant digit (or significant figure).
Significant digits express the uncertainty in the measurement.
When you count significant digits, start counting with the first nonzero number.
Let’s look at a reaction measured by three stopwatches.

25. Significant Digits, Continued
Stopwatch A is calibrated to seconds (0 s); Stopwatch B to tenths of a second (0.0 s); and Stopwatch C to hundredths of a second (0.00 s).
Stopwatch A reads 35 s; B reads 35.1 s; and C reads s.
35 s has two significant figures.
35.1 s has three significant figures.
35.08 has four significant figures.

26. Significant Digits and Placeholders
If a number is less than 1, a placeholder zero is never significant.
Therefore, 0.5 cm, 0.05 cm, and cm all have one significant digit.
If a number is greater than 1, a placeholder zero is usually not significant.
Therefore, 50 cm, 500 cm, and 5000 cm all have one significant digit.
The number of significant figures is directly linked to a measurement and deals with precision only.
The number of significant figures is directly linked to a measurement and deals with precision only.

27. Exact Numbers When we count something, it is an exact number.
Significant digit rules do not apply to exact numbers.
An example of an exact number: There are 7 quarters on this slide.

28. Rules for Counting Significant Figures
1. Nonzero integers always count as significant figures.
3456 has 4 sig figs (significant figures).
2. There are three classes of zeros.
a. Leading zeros do not count as significant figures.
0.048 has 2 sig figs.
b. Middle zeros always count as significant figures.
1607 or has 4 sig figs.
c. Ending zeros are significant only if the number contains a decimal point.
9.300 has 4 sig figs.
150 has 2 sig figs.
3. Significant digit rules do not apply to exact numbers.
1 inch = 2.54 cm, exactly.
9 pencils (obtained by counting).
1 dozen means always 12
The focus is on the precision of the measuring device which can measure to so many significant figures.

29. How many significant figures are in each of the following measurements?
24 mL
2 significant figures
3001 g
4 significant figures m3
3 significant figures g
5600 kg
The focus is on the precision of the measuring device which can measure to so many significant figures.
5600. kg

30. Rounding Off Nonsignificant Digits
All numbers from a measurement are significant. However, we often generate nonsignificant digits when performing calculations.
We get rid of nonsignificant digits by rounding off numbers.
There are three rules for rounding off numbers.
3.9 x 2.88 =

31. Rules for Rounding Numbers
If the first nonsignificant digit is less than 5, drop all nonsignificant digits.
If the first nonsignificant digit is greater than or equal to 5, increase the last significant digit by 1 and drop all nonsignificant digits.
If a calculation has several multiplication or division operations, retain nonsignificant digits in your calculator until the last operation.

32. Rounding Examples
A calculator displays and 3 significant digits are justified.
The first nonsignificant digit is a 3, so we drop all nonsignificant digits and get 15.7 as the answer.
A calculator displays and 3 significant digits are justified.
The first nonsignificant digit is a 5, so the last significant digit is increased by one to 8. All the nonsignificant digits are dropped, and we get 18.8 as the answer.

33. Rounding Off and Placeholder Zeros
Round the measurement 183 mL to two significant digits.
If we keep two digits, we have 18 mL, which is only about 10% of the original measurement.
Therefore, we must use a placeholder zero: 180 mL.
Recall that placeholder zeros are not significant.
Round the measurement 48,457 g to two significant digits.
We get 48,000 g.
Remember, the placeholder zeros are not significant, and 48 grams is significantly less than 48,000 grams.

34. Adding and Subtracting Measurements
When adding or subtracting measurements, the answer is limited by the value with the most uncertainty (least # of decimal places).
Let’s add three mass measurements.
The measurement g has the greatest uncertainty (± 0.1 g).
The correct answer is g.
114.3 g
0.75 +
0.581

35. Multiplying and Dividing Measurements
When multiplying or dividing measurements, the answer is limited by the value with the fewest significant figures.
Let’s multiply two length measurements:
(7.28 cm)(4.6 cm) = cm2
The measurement 4.6 cm has the fewest significant digits—two.
The correct answer is 33 cm2.

36. Exponential Numbers
Exponents are used to indicate that a number has been multiplied by itself.
Exponents are written using a superscript; thus, (4)(4)(4) = 43.
The number 3 is an exponent and indicates that the number 4 is multiplied by itself three times. It is read “4 to the third power” or “4 cubed.”
(4)(4)(4) = 43 = 64

37. Powers of 10
A power of 10 is a number that results when 10 is raised to an exponential power.
The power can be positive (number greater than 1) or negative (number less than 1).

38. D.DD x 10n Scientific Notation
Numbers in science are often very large or very small. To avoid confusion, we use scientific notation.
Scientific notation utilizes the significant digits in a measurement followed by a power of 10. The significant digits are expressed as a number between 1 and 10.
5000 or 5000.
D.DD x 10n
power of 10
significant digits

39. Applying Scientific Notation
Step 1: Place a decimal after the first nonzero digit in the number, followed by the remaining significant digits.
Step 2: Indicate how many places the decimal is moved by the power of 10.
A positive power of 10 indicates that the decimal moves to the left.
A negative power of 10 indicates that the decimal moves to the right.
= 1 x 106 or = 1x 10-6

40. Scientific Notation, Continued
There are 26,800,000,000,000,000,000,000 helium atoms in 1.00 L of helium gas. Express the number in scientific notation.
Place the decimal after the 2, followed by the other significant digits.
Count the number of places the decimal has moved to the left (22). Add the power of 10 to complete the scientific notation.
2.68 x 1022 atoms

41. Another Example
The typical length between a carbon and oxygen atom in a molecule of carbon dioxide is m. What is the length expressed in scientific notation?
Place the decimal after the 1, followed by the other significant digits.
Count the number of places the decimal has moved to the right (7). Add the power of 10 to complete the scientific notation.
1.16 x 10-7 m

42. Exponential Notation of Significant Figures
Example
300. written as 3.00 × 102 (3 Sig F) and
300 written as 3 × 102 (1 Sig F)
written as 6.0 × 10-5 (2 Sig F) and 60 written as 6 × 101 (1 Sig F)
Two Advantages
Number of significant figures can be easily indicated.
Fewer zeros are needed to write a very large or very small number.

43. Scientific Calculators
A scientific calculator has an exponent key (often EXP) for expressing powers of 10.
If your calculator reads 7.45 E-17, the proper way to write the answer in scientific notation is 7.45 x 10–17.
To enter the number in your calculator, type 7.45, press the exponent button (EXP) and type in the exponent followed by the +/– key.

44. Chapter Summary A measurement is a number with an attached unit.
All measurements have uncertainty.
The uncertainty in a measurement is dictated by the calibration of the instrument used to make the measurement.
Every number in a recorded measurement is a significant digit.

45. Chapter Summary, Continued
Placeholding zeros are not significant digits.
If a number does not have a decimal point, all nonzero numbers and all zeros between nonzero numbers are significant.
If a number has a decimal place, significant digits start with the first nonzero number and all digits to the right are also significant.

46. Chapter Summary, Continued
When adding and subtracting numbers, the answer is limited by the value with the most uncertainty.
When multiplying and dividing numbers, the answer is limited by the number with the fewest significant figures.
When rounding numbers, if the first nonsignificant digit is less than 5, drop the nonsignificant figures. If the number is 5 or more, raise the first significant number by 1, and drop all of the nonsignificant digits.

47. Chapter Summary, Continued
Exponents are used to indicate that a number is multiplied by itself n times.
Scientific notation is used to express very large or very small numbers in a more convenient fashion.
Scientific notation has the form D.DD x 10n, where D.DD are the significant figures (and is between 1 and 10) and n is the power of 10.