1. Chapter 7 Introduction to Economic Growth & Stability

2. Learning Objectives
How economic growth is measured and why it is important.
About the business cycle and its primary phases.
How unemployment and inflation are measured.
About the types of unemployment and inflation and their various impacts.

3. Two Definitions of Economics Growth
Economic Growth
1. An increase in real GDP occurring over some time period.
2. An increase in real GDP per capita occurring over some time period (takes into account the size of the population).
(growth is calculated as a % rate of growth
per quarter (3 month) or per year)

4. Growth – An Economic Goal
Growth is an important economic goal because it means more material abundance and ability to meet the economizing problem.
Growth lessens the burden of scarcity.
An economy that is experiencing economic growth is better able to meet people’s wants and resolve socioeconomic problems

5. The Rule of 70
Example: A 3 % annual rate of growth will double real GDP in about 23 years (70/3 = 23).

6. Main Sources of Growth – 2 ways
Increasing inputs of resources.
(About one-third of U.S. growth comes from more inputs)
2. Increasing productivity of existing inputs.
(About two-thirds of growth comes from improved productivity)

7. The Business Cycle
The U.S. has experienced economic instability associated with business cycles.
Business Cycles – alternating rises and declines in the level of economic activity, sometime over several years.

8. Business Cycle – 4 phases
A peak is when business activity reaches a temporary maximum with full employment and near-capacity output.
A recession is a decline in total output, income, employment, and trade lasting six months or more.
The trough is the bottom of the recession period.
Recovery is when output and employment are expanding toward full employment level.

10. Theories about Causation
Major innovations may trigger new investment and/or consumption spending.
Changes in productivity may be a related cause.
Most economist agree that the level of aggregate spending is important, especially changes on capital goods and consumer durables.

11. Durable & Non-Durable Goods
Consumer Durables are affected most by the business cycle.
Examples:
Capital Goods (housing, commercial buildings, heavy equipment)
Consumer Durables (automobiles, refrigerators, computers)

12. The twin problems that arise from the business cycle are:
Unemployment
Inflation

13. Unemployment - 3 Groups Under age 16 or institutionalized
“Not in labor force”
Labor Force - includes those age 16 and over who are willing and able to work, and actively seeking work (demonstrated job search activity within the last four weeks).

14. Unemployment Rate
The percentage of the labor force that is not employed (not the percentage of the population).
Measured by the U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics (BLS).
Unemployment Rate
Unemployed
Labor Force = x
100

15. Unemployment Rate
Calculated by random survey of 60,000 households nationwide.
(Households are in survey for four months, out for eight, back in for four, and then out for good; interviewers use the phone or home visits using laptops)

16. Unemployment Rate Underestimated
Two Factors:
1. Part‑time workers are counted as “employed.” 2. “Discouraged workers” who want a job, but are not actively seeking one, are not counted as being in the labor force, so they are not part of unemployment statistic.

17. Three Types of Unemployment
Frictional
Structural
Cyclical

18. Types of Unemployment Frictional Unemployment
consists of those searching for jobs or waiting to take jobs soon; it is regarded as somewhat desirable, because it indicates that there is mobility as people change or seek jobs.

19. Types of Unemployment
Structural Unemployment: due to changes in the structure of demand for labor; e.g., when certain skills become obsolete or geographic distribution of jobs changes.
Examples :
Glass blowers were replaced by bottle-making machines.
Oil-field workers were displaced when oil demand fell in 1980s.
Foreign competition has led to downsizing in U.S. industry and loss of jobs.

20. Types of Unemployment
Cyclical Unemployment - caused by the recession phase of the business cycle.
As firms respond to insufficient demand for their goods and services, output and employment are reduced.
Extreme unemployment during the Great Depression (25 percent in 1933) was cyclical unemployment.

21. Full Employment
Does not mean zero unemployment – something less that 100% employment of the Labor Force.
The full‑employment unemployment rate = total frictional and structural unemployment.
The full‑employment rate of unemployment is also referred to as the Natural Rate of Unemployment (NRU).

22. Natural Rate of Unemployment
The Natural Rate is achieved when labor markets are in balance; the number of job seekers equals the number of job vacancies.
The natural rate of unemployment is not fixed but depends on the demographic makeup of the labor force and the laws and customs of the nations.

23. Recently the natural rate has dropped from 6% to 4 to 5%
Recently the natural rate has dropped from 6% to 4 to 5%. This is attributed to:
a. The aging of the work force as the baby boomers approach retirement.
b. Improved job information through the internet and temporary-help agencies.
c. New work requirements passed with the most recent welfare reform.
d. The doubling of the U.S. prison population since 1985.

24. Economic Cost of Unemployment:
GDP gap and Okun’s Law:
GDP gap is the difference between potential and actual GDP.
Economist , Arthur Okun quantified the relationship between unemployment and GDP as follows: For every 1 percent of unemployment above the natural rate, a negative GDP gap of about 2 percent occurs. This is known as “Okun’s law.”
GDP
Gap
Actual GDP
Potential GDP = -

25. Unequal Burdens of Unemployment Exist
Rates are lower for white‑collar workers.
Teenagers have the highest rates.
Race and Ethnicity.
Rates for males and females are comparable, though females had a lower rate in 2002.
Less educated workers, on average, have higher unemployment rates than workers with more education.

26. Inflation
Defined:
Inflation is a rising general level of prices (not all prices rise at the same rate, and some may fall).
The main index used to measure inflation is the Consumer Price Index (CPI).
To measure inflation, subtract last year’s price index from this year’s price index and divide by last year’s index; then multiply by 100 to express as a percentage (also measured by the BLS).

27. Consumer Price Index (also measured by the BLS)
CPI
Price of the Most Recent Market
Basket in the Particular Year
Price of the Same Market
Basket in = x
100

28. Two Types of Inflation
Demand-Pull
Cost-Push

29. Causes and Theories of Inflation
Demand‑pull inflation: Spending increases faster than production. It is often described as “too much spending chasing too few goods.”

30. Causes and Theories of Inflation
Cost‑push or supply‑side inflation: Prices rise because of rise in per-unit production costs (Unit cost = total input cost/units of output).
Output and employment decline while the price level is rising.
Supply shocks have been the major source of cost-push inflation. These typically occur with dramatic increases in the price of raw materials or energy.

31. Redistribution Effects of Inflation
Inflation redistributes real income from some people to others.

32. Nominal & Real Income
Nominal Income - # of dollars received as wages, rent, interest, or profits.
Real Income – measure of the amount of goods and services nominal income can buy
(the purchasing power of nominal income, or income adjusted for inflation).
Real income = nominal income / price index (in hundredths)

33. Who is Hurt by Inflation?
Fixed-Income Receivers
Savers
Creditors
Who is Unaffected or Hurt by Inflation?
Flexible-Income Receivers
Cost-of-Living Adjustments (COLAs)
Debtors

34. Redistributive Effects of Inflation
If inflation is anticipated, the effects of inflation may be less severe, since wage and pension contracts may have inflation clauses built in, and interest rates will be high enough to cover the cost of inflation to savers and lenders. “Inflation premium” is amount that interest rate is raised to cover effects of anticipated inflation.
“Real interest rate” is defined as nominal rate minus inflation premium.

35. End Chapter 7