1. GROUP PROCESS Characteristics of a group
Direct interactions over a period of time
Joint membership in social categories
Shared common fate, identity and set of goals
Collective- people engaging in common activity with little direct interaction with one another

2. GROUP PROCESS
Robert Zajonc -the presence of others increased arousal which can affect performance
The essence of his work which is called the
Zajonc Solution; Social Facilitation

3. GROUP PROCESS Zajonc Solution; Social Facilitation
Presence of others increases arousal which strengthens the dominant response to a stimulus
On an easy task, the dominant response is usually correct – presence of others enhances performance
On a difficult task – the dominant response is often incorrect – presence of others impairs performance

4. GROUP PROCESS Social Facilitation occurs in several ways
1. Evaluation Apprehension Theory
A theory holding that the presence of others will produce social facilitation effects only when others are seen as potential evaluators.
Fear of others laughing at me; public humiliation

5. GROUP PROCESS 2. Distraction-Conflict Theory
Being distracted while we are working on a task creates attentional conflict – torn between working on the project and examining the distraction

6. GROUP PROCESS Social Loafing
Individual output on easy tasks where contributions are pooled- specific performance of any one individual cannot be determined. Max Ringlemann – 1980’s
Compared with what people produced when they worked they worked on their own, individual output declined when they worked on simple tasks like pulling a rope or pushing a cart.

7. GROUP PROCESS
Steven Karau and Kipling Williams conducted a meta analysis of seventy-eight studies and found social loafing to be a reliable phenomenon displayed across numerous tasks and in countries around the world.
Social loafing is less likely to occur when
People believe their own performance can be identified and thus evaluated
The task is important or meaningful to those performing it
People believe their own efforts are necessary for a successful outcome
The group expects to be punished for poor performance
The group is small
The group is cohesive- membership is important to members.

8. GROUP PROCESS 1.Collective Effort Model
Individuals try hard on a collective task when they think their efforts will help them achieve outcomes that they personally value.
2. Social Loafing
Less prevalent among woman that men
Less prevalent among people from eastern, collectivist cultures

9. GROUP PROCESS
Destructive capacity of collectives – Deindividuation – the loss of a person’s sense of individuality and the reduction of normal constraints against deviant behavior.
How does this happen – what are the environmental cues-

10. GROUP PROCESS
Accountability Cues- affect the individual’s cost –reward calculations
Accountability low
Less likely to be caught and punished-
Engage in gratifying but generally inhibited behavior.
The riots after Dan White’s sentencing for example

11. GROUP PROCESS Attentional Cues
Focuses a person’s attention away from the self
Self awareness declines
Change in consciousness
Individual attends less to internal standards of conduct
Reacts more to the immediate situation
Less sensitive to long-term consequences of behavior
Impulse rather than cognitively motivated

12. GROUP PROCESS
Loss of personal identity does not always produce anti-social behavior
Study with nurses and KKK robes
Social Identity Model of deindividuation (SIDE) effects:
As personal identity and internal controls are submerged social identity emerge and conformity of group increases.

13. GROUP PROCESS Group Dynamics: Interacting with Others
Why to join a group
One’s self worth comes from identification with particular groups

14. Stages of group development
Forming – members orient themselves to the group
Storming- members try to influence the group to fit their own needs.
Conflict/hostility/ imposition of will
Norming – members try to reconcile the conflict that emerged during storming and develop a common sense of purpose.
Performing- perform tasks and maximize group performance
Adjourning – disengage from the group, reduce activities within the group

15. GROUP PROCESS 3 Essential Components of Groups
Roles – set of expected behaviors can be formal or informal
Instrumental – help the group achieve its tasks
Expressive – provide emotional support and maintain morale
Set of clear roles help the group function

16. GROUP PROCESS
Norms – rules of conduct for members; can be positive or negative
Cohesiveness – forces exerted on a group that push its members closer together.
Commitment
Group Pride
Engagement
Stanley Gully and others (1995)
Positive relationship between cohesiveness and performance is much stronger for tasks that require interdependence

17. GROUP PROCESS
Breaking norms can be difficult – whistle blowers in the recent financial crises.
Groups are generally very homogenous

18. GROUP PROCESS Group Polarization Effect
Group discussion tends to enhance or exaggerate the initial leanings of the group.
If group leans toward risky – group decisions lean toward risky
If group leans toward cautious- group decisions lean toward cautious
Three process create group polarization
Persuasive arguments theory
social comparison
social categorization

19. GROUP PROCESS
Group Think – a group decision-making style characterized by an excessive tendency among group members to seek concurrence.
Emerges when the need for agreement takes priority over the motivation to obtain accurate information and make appropriate decisions

20. GROUP PROCESS
Janis (1982) three characteristics to the development of group think
1. Highly cohesive groups – reject people with deviant opinions
2. Group structure – similar backgrounds/strong leader/lacking systematic procedures for making and reviewing decisions
3. Stressful situations – urgency can overrule accuracy
Example – Bay of Pigs/ NASA –Challenger

21. GROUP PROCESS Preventing Groupthink (Janis) 1. Avoid isolation
2. Reduce conformity pressures –leaders should encourage criticism
3. Establish a strong norm of critical review.

22. GROUP PROCESS Group Performance Ivan Steiner (1972)
Group’s performance compares to the potential of its individuals depends on the type of task
1. Additive task – group product is the sum of all members contributions –(United Way)
2. Conjunctive tasks – group product is determined by the individual with the poorest performance. (mountain climbing)
3. Disjunctive task – group product is determined by the performance of the individual with the best performance.

23. GROUP PROCESS Brainstorming Express all ideas that come to mind
More ideas the better
Don’t edit the ideas
All ideas belong to the group

24. GROUP PROCESS Cautions with Brainstorming
Don’t get too attached to your ideas
Make room for everyone to speak
Keep an atmosphere of non judgment so everyone will feel comfortable speaking

25. GROUP PROCESS Diversity
Miscommunications and misunderstandings are more likely to arise among heterogeneous group members. (Levine & Moreland)
Diversity has a positive impact on patterns of socialization, classroom dynamics, complexity of group discussion.(Antonio et al.,2004)
Most likely to succeed when individuals feel that their personal identity is verified and accepted by other group members (Swann, 2003,2004)
Military teams – when groups are committed to their tasks they tend to perform well even if the members do not like or feel comfortable with each other.(Mullen 1991)

26. GROUP PROCESS Mixed motives and Social Dilemmas
What is good for one is bad for the rest of the group
Prisoner’s Dilemma –
a type of dilemma in which one party must make either cooperative or competitive moves in relation to another party; typically designed in such a way that competitive moves are more beneficial to either side…. But if both sides make competitive moves, they are both worse off that if they both cooperated.

27. GROUP PROCESS Resource Dilemmas
How two or more people share a limited resource.
Commons - take as much as you want and nothing is left for anyone else
Public goods – all contribute to a common pool

28. GROUP PROCESS The basis for all reality TV shows
Sets up the groups against one another and then present one dilemma after another.
The behavior of the participants supports the research
Groups tend to be more competitive in mixed- motive situations
Competitiveness of groups has its roots in fear and greed – fear of exploitation/greed for resources.

29. GROUP PROCESS Creates conflict between groups
Group polarization effect
Pressures for conformity
Escalation of commitment
Premature use of threat capacity
Negative perceptions of the ‘other’

30. GROUP PROCESS DEBATE GUIDELINES Preparations for our debate:
 The debate question is:
If we allowed all countries to have equal opportunity to develop nuclear capability our world would be safer. Therefore we should allow all countries that the opportunity to develop these arms.

31. GROUP PROCESS
For example if you are to argue the point that  there is a need for monitoring nuclear capability then you need to back up your stand with clear arguments as to why that would make the world a safer place to live. You can look at economics, resources, longevity etc on both sides. After the debate we will analyze your group participation based on the principles/research/concepts in the text.
If you are to argue the point that equal opportunity should be granted you will need to back up what specifically points to that need.

32. GROUP PROCESS You will be divided into two groups.
One group will argue yes and the other no to the question. 
Each group prepares:
1 opening statement
3 main argument points
1 closing statement

33. GROUP PROCESS Guidelines:
Choose 5 students to represent the group in the debate
Each statement is limited to one minute
Between each argument your group will have one minute to prepare your rebuttal
The entire group is necessary to revise the rebuttal