1. What factors shaped Italian foreign policy?
L/O – To identify the causes and conditions that encouraged an expansionist foreign policy in Italy

2. Who was Benito Mussolini?
Benito Amilcare Andrea Mussolini was born in 1883 in Northern Italy. His father was a socialist blacksmith, and mother a catholic school teacher.
In 1902 he emigrated to Switzerland to avoid conscription and became involved in the Italian socialist movement. By 1910 he had established himself as one of Italy’s most prominent socialists, editing a number journals and became editor of the Socialist Party newspaper ‘Avanti!’ in 1911.
In terms of political philosophy, Mussolini preached a strange mixture of socialism and Nietzche-ist elitism, similar to the views of the young NSDAP.

3. How did Mussolini rise to power?
When WW1 broke out in 1914, Italian nationalism surged with most political parties supporting intervention apart from the Socialists.
Mussolini initially was against the war but changed his mind when he realised the opportunities it presented. He believed it was a chance to complete the process of ‘Risorgimento’ – reuniting all Italians living in the Austrian Habsburg empire and he thought it would promote social revolution across Europe.
For his pro-war views, he was expelled from the Italian Socialist Party. This marked his turn towards revolutionary nationalism.

4. How did Mussolini rise to power?
In 1914 he formed the ‘Fasci Rivoluzionari d'Azione Internazionalista’ – an early fascist movement advocating for intervention in the war. They called themselves ‘Facisti’ or Fascists.
By 1915 he was denouncing socialism for failing to support the nation, and called for a revolutionary vanguard elite to lead society – he openly maintained he was a ‘national socialist’.
The Fascists immediately came into violent contact with the Socialists, with political violence spreading. This was exacerbated by social, political, and economic disruption during and after the war.

5. How did Mussolini rise to power?
Mussolini himself joined the war and was promoted to corporal. His career ended in after being injured by a mortar bomb.
He returned to his life as editor of his newspaper ‘Il Popolo d’Italia’ and leader of the Fascists. In 1919 he reformed the party as the ‘Fasci Italiani di Combattimento’ or ‘Italian Combat Squad’.
The movement grew due to its ideology. It opposed class discrimination, and argued for unity based on notions of the ‘Roman’ past.

6. How did Mussolini rise to power?
The Fascists were viewed as a new movement – they combined traditionalism with revolutionary thought. A ‘third way’.
By 1921, the Fascisti had formed armed squads of war veterns called ‘blackshirts’ whose goal was to restore order on the streets.
The same year they rebranded themselves as the ‘National Fascist Party’ and Mussolini won his first election to the Chamber of Deputies.

7. ‘The March on Rome’
On 27th to 28th October, about 30,000 blackshirts gathered in Naples and Rome demanding the resignation of PM Luigi Facta and the appointment of Mussolini.
King Victor Emmanuel III refused to allow the government to declare martial law – the King handed power to Mussolini – elites believed they could use him to restore law and order.
Between , Mussolini as PM slowly extended his control, consolidating his power as ‘Il Duce’ by 1925.

9. What influenced his foreign policy?
Own Aims and Motives
Mussolini’s foreign policy was influenced and shaped by a number of factors.
These were a mixture of his own aims and motives, as well as domestic and international conditions that restrained or enabled the choices he took:
Nationalist demands
Maintaining power
Domestic problems
Fascist ideology
International events

10. Viewpoints on Foreign Policy
Look at a timeline of key events in the development of Mussolini’s foreign policy – Which of the three themes listed here can you detect during each event?
Historians can be divided into three competing viewpoints on the nature of Italian foreign policy under Mussolini:
Imperial Design – FP had a grand plan to restore Roman glory and reunite Italy, consistent with previous Italian FP before Mussolini (Intentionist/Determinist)
Opportunism – FP was unprincipled and erratic, shifting between aggression and conciliation with no clear plan (Structuralist)
Propaganda – FP was subservient to domestic concerns and design to strengthen Mussolini’s power & prestige (Intentionist)

11. Debatable Questions on Foreign Policy
What were the underlying motives behind Mussolini’s foreign policy?
To what extent was foreign policy under Mussolini any different from before?
In what ways did social, political, and economic conditions limit or enable his actions?
How successful was his foreign policy?
Under Mussolini, what was the relationship between domestic and foreign policy?
Are democratic or totalitarian regimes more influence in their foreign policy by domestic considerations?
To what extent did Italy’s geographical position influence its foreign policy?