1. CHAPTER 12 MOTIVATION

2. Lecture outline Nature of motivation Needs theories Cognitive theories
Reinforcement theory
Social learning theory

3. Nature of motivation
Motivation is the force energising or, giving direction to, behaviour, and underlies the tendency to persist.
It is a complex interaction of behaviours, needs, rewards/reinforcement and cognitive activities.

4. Nature of motivation x X environmental performance ability motivation
conditions
ability
motivation x X =

5. Needs theories Hierarchy of needs theory (Maslow)
Two-factor theory (Herzberg)
ERG theory (Aldefer)
Acquired needs theory (McClelland)

6. Needs theories Hierarchy of needs theory (Maslow):
Theory arguing that individual needs form a five-level hierarchy.

7. Needs theories Self-actualisation Esteem Belongingness Safety
Physiological

9. Needs theories ERG theory (Aldefer)
Alternative to Maslow’s hierarchy of needs theory, which argues that there are three levels of individual needs.

10. Needs theories Relatedness needs Relationships with family,
work and professional
groups
Existence needs
Physiological (food, water)
Pay
Benefits
Working conditions
Satisfaction-progression
principle
Frustration-regression
Growth needs
Creativity
Innovation
Productivity

11. Needs theories Two-factor theory (Herzberg)
Herzberg’s theory that hygiene factors are necessary to keep workers from feeling dissatisfied but, only motivators can lead workers to feel satisfied and motivated.

12. Hygiene factors Motivators
Factors that prevents you from being dissatisfied
Motivators
Factors seeming to make individuals feel satisfied with their jobs (enhances motivation)

13. Needs theories Hygiene factors Motivators Achievement Responsibility
Pay
Working Conditions
Supervisors
Company Policies
Fringe benefits
Achievement
Responsibility
Work itself
Recognition
Growth
Advancement

14. Needs theories Acquired needs theory (McClelland)
Theory stating that an individual`s needs are acquired over time and are shaped by his/ her life experiences.
McClelland further states that most of these needs can be classed into one of the three categories which are: Achievement, Affiliation and Power

15. Developed by David McClelland (1961)
NEEDS THEORIES
Acquired needs theory
Developed by David McClelland (1961)
Cites the needs for achievement, power,
and affiliation as major motives in work
Need for achievement—drive to excel
Need for power—influence others’ behaviour
Need for affiliation—desire for friendly
and close interpersonal relationships
Need for achievement (nAch): desire to accomplish challenging tasks, achieve excellence, compete.
Need for power (nPow): desire for personal and institutional power - to influence others and control the environment.
Need for affiliation (nAff): desire for warm and friendly relationships with others.
McClelland developed a measure for these needs which he called the Thematic Apperception Test (TAT) in which volunteers are asked to develop stories based on a selection of deliberately ambiguous pictures. From the subjects’ stories, McClelland would score the mix of achievement, power and affiliation themes.
Some textbooks and websites have examples of the kinds of pictures used.
McClelland also analysed the various needs in relation to managerial effectiveness, and thought that people could be trained to improve or raise their need for achievement.
Pages
The four needs theories covered in this Chapter have a range of similarities and point to higer-level needs as important for motivation. A table comparing the needs theories is at Page 452 (Figure 12.5).

16. Achievement – people with high need for achievement seek to excel and thus tend to avoid risk situations. (Nach)
Affiliation – People with high need for harmonious relationships with other always work to be accepted by others. People with high Naff tend to work at places that provides significant personal interaction.
Power – Need to influence other and control one`s environment. Power can be divided into two categories.

17. 2 Types of Power
Personal Power – need for power in which people want to control others. This may be because of the sake of demonstrating their ability or authority.
Institutional Power – need for power in which people focus on working with others in order to enhance and move the organizational goals forward.

18. Personal Power ????????

20. Which Power????
TEETH POWER

22. Cognitive theories
Expectancy theory
Equity theory
Goal-setting theory

23. Cognitive theories Expectancy theory (Vroom)
Theory arguing that we consider three main issues (effort-performance, performance-outcome, valence) before we expend effort necessary to perform at a given level.

24. Cognitive theories Effort-performance expectancy
Our assessment of the probability our efforts will lead to the required level of performance.
Performance-outcome expectancy
Our assessment of the probability our successful performance will lead to desired outcomes.
Valence
Our assessment of anticipated value of various outcomes or rewards. – value of outcomes

25. Ratio of inputs = Ratio of outputs
Cognitive theories
Equity theory (Adams)
Theory arguing that we prefer situations of balance or, equity.
Ratio of inputs = Ratio of outputs
“Others”
If the ratio of inputs to outputs is less beneficial than the ratio enjoyed by referent others, then we become de-motivated in relation to our job and employer.

26. Cognitive theories Goal-setting theory
Goal-setting theory [technique] works by focussing attention & action, mobilising effort, increasing persistence, & encouraging the development of strategy to achieve goals.

27. Reinforcement theory
Theory arguing that our behaviour can be explained by consequences in the environment.

28. Types of reinforcement: Positive
Technique aiming to increase a desired behaviour through positive things--Uses pleasant, rewarding consequences to encourage desired behaviour. Use of shaping.
Negative
(unpleasant) stimuli so an individual will engage in the desired behaviour to stop the stimuli.
Doing something in order to avoid negative

29. Types of reinforcement: Extinction
Stopping previously available positive outcomes from a behaviour to decrease the behaviour.
Punishment
Providing negative consequences to decrease or discourage a behaviour.

30. Reinforcement theory Using reinforcement theory: Fixed ratio:
given after fixed number
of cases of desired behaviour.
High response rates, rapid
extinguishment if stopped
even temporarily.
Eg: on every five successful
ideas implemented
Fixed interval:
given on fixed time
schedule. Uneven
responses, extinction
rapid if reinforcement
late, or stops
Eg: Visiting at the same
time
Using
reinforcement
theory:
encourage desired
behaviour, be clear
on what is desired.
Use variable interval
& variable ratio
reinforcement.
Punish moderately
severely & promptly.
Variable interval:
given on variable or
random time basis.
High, steady
response rate, slow
extinguishment,
if stopped
Eg: On an average
Variable ratio:
given on variable or
random frequency
of behaviour basis.
High response rate,
very slow extinguishment
Eg: one award per five
successful ideas. And so on

31. Social Learning Theory
"Learning would be exceedingly laborious, not to mention hazardous, if people had to rely solely on the effects of their own actions to inform them what to do. Fortunately, most human behavior is learned observationally through modeling: from observing others one forms an idea of how new behaviors are performed, and on later occasions this coded information serves as a guide for action." -Albert Bandura, Social Learning Theory, 1977

32. Social learning theory
Social learning theory (Bandura)
Theory arguing that learning occurs through continuous reciprocal interaction of our behaviours, various personal factors and environmental forces.

33. Social learning theory
Symbolic processes
Self-control/regulation---Intrinsic Reinforcement
Vicarious learning.

34. Lecture summary Nature of motivation Needs theories
Motivational process
Motivation & performance.
Needs theories
Hierarchy of needs
Two-factor
ERG
Acquired needs.

35. Lecture summary Cognitive theories Reinforcement theory
Expectancy
Equity
Goal-setting.
Reinforcement theory
Positive, negative, extinction, punishment as reinforcement.
Social learning theory
Symbolic processes, self-control, vicarious learning.