1. The Confederation and the Constitution, 1776–1790
Chapter 9
The Confederation and the Constitution, 1776–1790

2. Pursuit of Equality is at the end of this PPT.

3. The Verdict of the People (detail) This election-day crowd exudes the
exuberant spirit of the era of Andrew Jackson, when the advent of universal
white male suffrage made the United States the modern world's first mass
participatory democracy. Yet the black man with the wheelbarrow, literally
pushing his way into the painting, is a pointed reminder that the curse of
slavery still blighted this happy scene.
The Verdict of the People (detail) This election-day crowd exudes the
exuberant spirit of the era of Andrew Jackson, when the advent of universal
white male suffrage made the United States the modern world's first mass
participatory democracy. Yet the black man with the wheelbarrow, literally
pushing his way into the painting, is a pointed reminder that the curse of
slavery still blighted this happy scene.
p158

4. cotton looms heralded the dawn of the Industrial Revolution, which
Women Weavers at Work
(detail) These simple
cotton looms heralded the
dawn of the Industrial
Revolution, which
transformed the lives of
Americans even more
radically than the events of
1776.
Women Weavers at Work
(detail) These simple
cotton looms heralded the
dawn of the Industrial
Revolution, which
transformed the lives of
Americans even more
radically than the events of
1776.
p159

5. A Shaky Start Toward Union
What doubts remained about the new country’s success?

6. I. A Shaky Start Toward Union
Disruptive forces stalked the land:
Departed Tories left political system inclined toward experimentation and innovation
Economy stumbled post-Revolution
Yet thirteen sovereign states:
Shared similar political structures
Enjoyed rich political inheritance
Were blessed with good political leaders

7. Constitution Making in the States
How did the first attempt at making a national constitution develop?

8. II. Constitution Making in the States
Constitutional Congress in 1776 called on colonies to draft new state constitutions:
Asked colonies to summon themselves into being as new states
Sovereignty of new states would rest on authority of the people
Connecticut and Rhode Island merely retouched their colonial charters
Others would write new constitutions

9. II. Constitution Making in the States (cont.)
Massachusetts called for special convention to draft its constitution and then submitted final draft to the people for ratification:
Once adopted, constitution could only be changed by another constitutional convention
Its constitution remained longest-lived constitution in world

10. II. Constitution Making in the States (cont.)
Common constitutional features:
As written documents, constitutions represented fundamental law, superior to ordinary legislation
Most contained bills of rights— protect prized liberties against legislative encroachment
Most required annual election of legislators
All created weak executive and judicial branches

11. II. Constitution Making in the States (cont.)
In new governments, legislatures were granted sweeping powers:
Democratic character reflected by presence of many from recently enfranchised western districts
Their influence was demonstrated when some states moved capitals into interior

12. Economic Crosscurrents
What were the ups and downs of the American economy?

13. III. Economic Crosscurrents
Economic changes:
States seized control of former crown lands
Land was cheap and easily available
In America, economic democracy preceded political democracy
Revolution also stimulated manufacturing
Laissez faire: no regulations/taxes on business (creativity, innovation) Adam Smith

14. III. Economic Crosscurrents (cont.)
Drawbacks of economic independence:
Most British commerce reserved for loyal parts of the empire
American ships now barred from British and British West Indies harbors
Fisheries were disrupted
Americans could freely trade with foreign nations
New commercial outlets (e.g., China in 1784) partially compensated for loss of old ones

15. Among the American entrepreneurs who prospered in the China trade was Warren Delano, ancestor of President Franklin Delano Roosevelt.
Western Merchants Negotiating for Tea in Hong Kong, ca Yankee merchants
and shippers figured prominently in the booming trade with China in the late
eighteenth century. Among the American entrepreneurs who prospered in the China
trade was Warren Delano, ancestor of President Franklin Delano Roosevelt.
p163

16. Among the American entrepreneurs who prospered in the China trade was Warren Delano, ancestor of President Franklin Delano Roosevelt.
p162

17. III. Economic Crosscurrents (cont.)
War spawned demoralizing speculation and profiteering.
State governments borrowed more than they could repay.
Runaway inflation ruined many.
Average citizen was worse off financially at the end of Revolution than at start.

18. III. Economic Crosscurrents (cont.)
Whole economic and social atmosphere was unhealthy:
A newly rich class of profiteers was conspicuous
Once-wealthy people were destitute
Controversies leading to Revolution had bred:
keen distaste for taxes
encouraged disrespect for laws in general

19. Creating a Confederation
What was the main concern of colonies in creating the Articles of Confederation? How did that play out?

20. IV. Creating a Confederation
Second Continental Congress:
Little more than a conference of ambassadors
Was totally without constitutional authority
Asserted some control over military and foreign policy
In all respects, thirteen states were sovereign:
Coined money
Raised armies and navies
Erected tariff barriers

21. IV. Creating a Confederation (cont.)
Articles of Confederation:
Adopted by Congress in 1777, but not ratified by states until 1781
Chief point of contention was western lands:
6 states had no holdings beyond Allegheny Mtns
7 (esp. New York & Virginia) held huge acreage
Land-rich states could use trans-Allegheny tracts to pay off debts

22. IV. Creating a Confederation (cont.)
Unanimous approval of Articles by all thirteen states was required:
Maryland held out until March 1781 to get agreement by New York to surrender its western lands
Congress pledged to dispose of these vast areas for “common benefit”
Promised to carve out a number of “republican” states, which overtime would be admitted to union
Pledge redeemed in Northwest Ordinance of 1787 (see Map 9.1).
Disposal of western lands helped encourage union

23. Western Land Cessions to the United States, 1782–1802
Map 9.1 Western Land Cessions
to the United States, 1782–1802
Map 9-1 p164

24. The Articles of Confederation: America's First Constitution
What were the powers of the central government under the Articles?

25. V. The Articles of Confederation: America's First Constitution
Provided for loose union or “firm league of friendship”
thirteen independent states linked together to deal with common problems, such as foreign affairs
Congress was chief agency
No executive branch
Judicial issues left almost exclusively to states

26. V. The Articles of Confederation: America's First Constitution (cont.)
Congress, though dominant, was hobbled:
Each state had a single vote
All important bills required support of nine states
Any amendment to Articles required unanimous ratification
Congress was weak—and was purposely designed to be weak

27. V. The Articles of Confederation: America's First Constitution (cont.)
Two major weakness of Articles:
Congress had no power to regulate commerce
Congress could not enforce its own tax-collection
Congress could advise, advocate, and appeal:
In dealing with states, it could not coerce or control
Nor could it act directly on individuals

28. V. The Articles of Confederation: America's First Constitution (cont.)
New Congress, with paper power, was less effective than Continental Congress.
Yet, Articles proved to be a landmark:
As first written constitution of Republic, Articles were significant step toward later Constitution
Outlined general powers of national government
Kept alive ideal of union and held states together
Without Articles, great leap from old Association of 1774 to current Constitution not possible

29. Independence Hall, Philadelphia, 1776 Originally built in the 1730s as a meeting place for
the Pennsylvania colonial assembly, this building witnessed much history: here Washington was
given command of the Continental Army, the Declaration of Independence was signed, and the
Constitution was hammered out. The building began to be called “Independence Hall” in the
1820s and is today a major tourist destination in Philadelphia.
Independence Hall, Philadelphia, 1776 Originally built in the 1730s as a meeting place for the Pennsylvania colonial assembly, this building witnessed much history: here Washington was given command of the Continental Army, the Declaration of Independence was signed, and the
Constitution was hammered out. The building began to be called “Independence Hall” in the 1820s and is today a major tourist destination in Philadelphia.
p165

30. Landmarks in Land Laws
Describe the new laws defining development of the Northwest and eventually state-building….

31. VI. Landmarks in Land Laws
Passages of public domain legislation:
Old Northwest = area northwest of Ohio River, east of Mississippi River, south of Great Lakes
Land Ordinance of 1785 (see Map 9.2) set up orderly process to sell land in Old Northwest and use proceeds to pay national debt:
After surveyed, land divided into townships, then into sections
Sixteenth section sold to fund education

32. Map 9.2 Surveying the Old Northwest Under the Land Ordinance of 1785 Sections
of a township under the Land Ordinance of 1785.
Map 9-2 p166

33. VI. Landmarks in Land Laws (cont.)
Northwest Ordinance of 1787:
Governance of old Northwest -- how nation would deal with its colonies:
First temporary tutelage, then permanent equality
First, two evolutionary territorial stages under subordination to federal government
Once a territory had 60,000 inhabitants, it could be admitted by Congress as a state
Ordinance forbad slavery in old Northwest

34. The World's Ugly Duckling
How was America shown much disrespect in it’s early years?

35. VII. The World's Ugly Duckling
Relations with Britain remained troubled:
England refused to send a minister to America
Declined to negotiate a commercial treaty or to repeal Navigation Laws
Closed West Indies trade to the states
Tried, with help of Allen brothers of Vermont, to annex rebellious area to Canada
Maintained a chain of trading posts on U.S. soil
Continued fur trade with Indians

36. VII. The World's Ugly Duckling: (cont.)
Spain was openly hostile to new Republic:
Controlled all-important Mississippi River on which pioneers shipped their produce
In 1784 Spain closed river to American commerce threatening West with strangulation
Claimed large areas north of Gulf of Mexico
Schemed with Indians to keep Americans east of Appalachians
Because Spain & Britain influenced Indians, America unable to exercise control over half of its territory (see Map 9.3).

37. foreign influence from the east bank of the Mississippi
9.3 Main Centers of Spanish and British Influence After 1783 This map shows graphically that the United States in 1783 achieved complete independence in name
only, particularly in the area west of the Appalachian Mountains. Not until twenty years had passed did the new Republic, with the purchase of Louisiana from France in 1803, eliminate
foreign influence from the east bank of the Mississippi
River. Much of Florida remained in Spanish hands until the Adams-Onis Treaty of 1819 (see p. 239–240).
Map 9.3 Main Centers of Spanish and British Influence
After 1783 This map shows graphically that the United
States in 1783 achieved complete independence in name
only, particularly in the area west of the Appalachian Mountains.
Not until twenty years had passed did the new Republic,
with the purchase of Louisiana from France in 1803, eliminate
foreign influence from the east bank of the Mississippi
River. Much of Florida remained in Spanish hands until the
Adams-Oni´s Treaty of 1819 (see p. 239–240).
Map 9-3 p167

38. VII. The World's Ugly Duckling (cont.)
France, America's friend, cooled off now that Britain humbled
North African pirates ravaged America's Mediterranean commence
New nation too weak to fight pirates and too poor to pay bribes.

39. The Horrid Specter of Anarchy
What signs showed that the Articles of Confederation were incapable of dealing with the needs of the new nation?

40. VII. The Horrid Specter of Anarchy
Economic problems, mid-1780s:
System of raising tax money was breaking down
Interest on public debt was escalating
Some states were levying their own duties
Some were printing depreciated paper money
Shays's Rebellion in western Massachusetts:
Impoverished farmers lost land through mortgage foreclosures and tax delinquencies

41. VII. The Horrid Specter of Anarchy (cont.)
Led by Captain Daniel Shays, desperate debtors demanded:
State issue paper money, lighten taxes, and suspend property takeovers
Hundreds attempted to enforce demands
Massachusetts authorities responded by raising small army and skirmishes occurred
After 3 Shaysites killed and one wounded, movement collapsed

42. VII. The Horrid Specter of Anarchy (cont.)
Shays's followers were crushed, but memory remained:
Massachusetts passed debtor-relief laws
Shays's outburst caused fear among propertied class
Civic virtue insufficient to rein in self-interest
Needed stronger central government to block “mobocracy”

43. Debtors Protest, 1787 This drawing done on the eve of
the writing of the U.S. Constitution features a farmer with a
plow, a rake, and a bottle complaining, “Takes all to pay
taxes.” The discontent of debt-rich and currency-poor
farmers alarmed republican leaders and helped persuade
them that the Articles of Confederation needed to be
replaced with a new constitution.
Debtors Protest, 1787 This drawing done on the eve of
the writing of the U.S. Constitution features a farmer with a
plow, a rake, and a bottle complaining, “Takes all to pay
taxes.” The discontent of debt-rich and currency-poor
farmers alarmed republican leaders and helped persuade
them that the Articles of Confederation needed to be
replaced with a new constitution.
p168

44. VII. The Horrid Specter of Anarchy (cont.)
How critical were conditions under Articles?
Conservatives, protecting their wealth, exaggerated seriousness of nation's plight
They sought to amend Articles to create more muscular central government
Both friends and critics of the Confederation agreed it needed strengthening, but disagreed over how much its powers should be increased
Economy actually improved, late 1780s

45. A Convention of “Demigods”
What was the Annapolis Convention about and how did it set the stage for bigger national developments?

46. IX. A Convention of “Demigods”
Annapolis convention of 1786:
Called to deal with commercial disputes
Nine states appointed delegates, only 5 attended
Alexander Hamilton got convention to call for meeting in Philadelphia in 1787 to bolster entire fabric of Articles of Confederation
Eventually Congress agreed to a convention “for the sole and express purpose of revising” Articles
Each state sent representatives, except Rhode Island

47. IX. A Convention of “Demigods” (cont.)
55 emissaries from 12 states convened in Philadelphia on May 25, 1787
Sessions were held in secrecy, with armed sentinels at doors
Caliber of participants was extraordinarily high—“demigods,” Jefferson called them
Most were lawyers with experience at state constitution-making
George Washington was elected chairman
Benjamin Franklin served as elder statesman

48. IX. A Convention of “Demigods” (cont.)
James Madison's contributions were so notable he was dubbed “the Father of the Constitution”
Alexander Hamilton advocated a super-powerful central government
Most Revolutionary leaders of 1776 were absent
Jefferson, J. Adams, and Thomas Paine in Europe
Samuel Adams & John Hancock were not elected
Patrick Henry was elected from Virginia, but declined, declaring he “smelled a rat.”
Time had come to fashion a solid political system

49. Rising Sun Symbol at the Top of Washington’s
Chair This brass sun adorned the chair in which George Washington sat during the Constitutional Convention. Pondering the symbol, Benjamin Franklin observed, “I have the happiness to know it is a rising and not a setting sun.” Henry Groskinsky/Time Life Pictures/Getty Images
Rising Sun Symbol at the Top of Washington’s
Chair This brass sun adorned the chair in which George
Washington sat during the Constitutional Convention.
Pondering the symbol, Benjamin Franklin observed,
“I have the happiness to know it is a rising and not a setting
sun.” Henry Groskinsky/Time Life Pictures/Getty Images
p170

50. Patriots in Philadelphia
Who were the framers and what were their basic aspirations?

51. X. Patriots in Philadelphia
The 55 delegates:
A conservative, well-to-do body of lawyers, merchants, shippers, land speculators, moneylenders
Not a single person from the debtor groups
Young (average age 42) but experienced statesmen
Nationalists, more interested in preserving young Republic then stirring popular democracy
Hoped to crystallize evaporating pools of Revolutionary idealism into stable political structure that would endure

52. X. Patriots in Philadelphia (cont.)
Wanted a firm, dignified, & respected government:
Believed in republicanism, but sought to protect American experiment from weakness abroad and excesses at home
Wanted central government to control tariffs in order to secure commercial treaties from foreign nations
Determined to preserve union, forestall anarchy, and ensure security of life & property against uprisings by “mobocracy”
Curb unrestrained democracy rampant in several states
Motivated by fear

53. Hammering Out a Bundle of Compromises
How important was compromise in the creation of the Constitution? Cite a few examples.

54. XI. Hammering Out a Bundle of Compromises
Some delegates decided to completely scrap Articles of Confederation
Despite explicit instructions from Congress to revise
Were determined to overthrow existing government by peaceful means (see Table 9.1)

55. What does this chart show?
Think, Discuss, Answer…
What does this chart show?
How the colonies began working together, how long that occurred, how it culminated in the federal government created in 1789.
Table 9-1 p171

56. XI. Hammering Out a Bundle of Compromises (cont.)
Proposals:
Virginia Plan—“large-state plan”: representation in both houses of bicameral Congress would be based on population—an arrangement that advantaged larger states
New Jersey Plan—“small-state plan”: provided for equal representation in unicameral Congress, regardless of size and population
Bitter debate Because small states feared Virginia scheme would allow domination by large states

57. XI. Hammering Out a Bundle of Compromises (cont.)
The Great Compromise (Connecticut Compromise:
Larger states gained representation by population in House of Representatives (Art. I, Sec. II, para. 3 see the Appendix)
Smaller states were appeased by equal representation in Senate (Art. I, Sec. III, para. 1)
Agreed that all tax bills or revenue measures must originate in House, where population counted more heavily (Art. I, Sec. VII, para. 1).
Compromise broke deadlock

58. XI. Hammering Out a Bundle of Compromises (cont.)
The final Constitution was:
Short Because grew from Anglo-American common law legal tradition
Provide flexible guide to broad rules of procedures rather than detailed laws
The original (unamended) Constitution contained just 7 articles and took about 10 pages to print

59. XI. Hammering Out a Bundle of Compromises (cont.)
The President:
Broad authority to make appointments to domestic offices, including judgeships
Power to veto legislation
Not absolute power to wage war
Congress retained crucial right to declare war
Constitution a bundle of compromises:
Elect president indirectly by Electoral College rather than by direct means
Meant to give more power to the smaller states that were feeling dominated by larger states.

60. Signing of the Constitution of the United States, 1787 George Washington presided from the dais as the Constitutional Convention's president. At a table in the front row sat James Madison, later called the Father of the Constitution, who recorded the proceedings in shorthand. Daily from 10 a.m. to 3 p.m., from late May through mid-September 1787, the fifty-five delegates wrangled over ideas for a new federal government.
Signing of the Constitution of the United States, 1787 George Washington
presided from the dais as the Constitutional Convention's president. At a table in the
front row sat James Madison, later called the Father of the Constitution, who recorded
the proceedings in shorthand. Daily from 10 a.m. to 3 p.m., from late May through mid-
September 1787, the fifty-five delegates wrangled over ideas for a new federal
government.
p172

61. XI. Hammering Out a Bundle Compromises (cont.)
A state's share of electors based on total of its senators and representatives in Congress (see Art. II, Sec. I, para. 2)
Slavery and Constitution (see Table 9.2):
Three-fifths compromise: slave as three-fifths of a person for representation (see Art. I, Sec. II, para. 3)
Slave trade could continue until end of 1807 (see Art. I, Sec. IX, para 1).

62. Table 9-2 p173

63. Think, Discuss, Answer
What do you suppose was the reason for terms agreed upon? (think ratification)
Article I, sections 2; Article IV, section 4.
*one answer will do for all three….
Meant to assuage concerns of slave-holding states and encourage them to support the Constitution.

64. Safeguards for Conservatism
What did conservatives expect from the new constitution?

65. XII. Safeguards for Conservatism
Agreement among delegates was large:
Economically, they demanded sound money and protection of private property
Politically, they favored a strong government with three branches, and with checks & balances
Rejected manhood-suffrage democracy (preferred aristocracy (oligarchy))

66. XII. Safeguards for Conservatism (cont.)
Erected safeguards against excesses of “mob”:
Federal judges were appointed for life
President to be elected indirectly by Electoral College
Senators were chosen indirectly by state legislatures (see Art. I, Sec. III, para. 1)
In House of Representatives, qualified (propertied) citizens permitted to choose their officials by direct vote (see Art. 1, Sec. II, para. 1).

67. XII. Safeguards for Conservatism (cont.)
Democratic elements in new charter:
Stood on two great principles of republicanism
Only legitimate government was one based on consent of the governed
Powers of government should be limited—in this case by a written constitution
Virtue of the people, not authority of the state, was ultimate guarantor of liberty, justice, and order
After 17 weeks—May 25 to September 17, 1787—only 42 of original 55 remained to sign Constitution
3 of 42 refused to sign

68. XIII. The Clash of Federalists and Antifederalists
What were the arguments of those who favored and opposed the new constitution?

69. XIII. The Clash of Federalists and Antifederalists
Framers foresaw that nationwide acceptance of Constitution would be difficult:
Unanimous ratification by all thirteen states required by still-standing Articles of Confederation
Because Rhode Island certain to veto, delegates stipulated that when 9 states had approved through specifically elected conventions, Constitution would be supreme law in those states (see Art. VII).

70. XIII. The Clash of Federalists and Antifederalists (cont.)
American people were handed a new document (see Table 9.3):
Antifederalists—opposed a stronger federal government
Federalists—supported a strong federal government

71. XIII. The Clash of Federalists and Antifederalists (cont.)
Antifederalists (Samuel Adams, Patrick Henry, Richard Henry Lee) were states' rights devotees (see Map 9.4), backcountry dwellers, small farmers, paper-moneyites and debtors
Federalists (George Washington, Benjamin Franklin) were those who lived on seaboard, wealthy, educated, better organized
Antifederalists argued document drafted by elite would weaken states & threaten individual liberties

72. Table 9-3 p174

73. The Great Debate in the States
How easy or hard was it to get the various states to ratify the Constitution? Explain.

74. XIV. The Great Debate in the States
Special elections held for members of ratifying conventions (see Table 9.4)
Candidates—federalist or antifederalist—were elected based on whether they were for or were against Constitution
Four small states quickly accepted Constitution
Pennsylvania was first large state to ratify
Massachusetts presented challenges, including demand for bill of rights

75. Map 9.4 The Struggle over
Ratification This mottled map
shows that federalist support
tended to cluster around the
coastal areas, which had enjoyed
profitable commerce with the
outside world, including the
export of grain and tobacco.
Impoverished frontiersmen,
suspicious of a powerful new
central government under the
Constitution, were generally
antifederalists.
Map 9-4 p175

76. Table 9-4 p175

77. XIV. The Great Debate in the States (cont.)
Once assured of such a protection, Massachusetts ratified by margin of 187 to 168
Three more states then signed
New Hampshire was the last
All but Virginia, New York, North Carolina, and Rhode Island had taken shelter under “new federal roof”
Document officially signed on June 21, 1788

78. Banner Paraded by the Society of Pewterers in New York City,
1788 This silk banner was carried
by members of the Society of
Pewterers in a parade in New York
City, on July 23, 1788, to celebrate
the impending ratification of the
United States Constitution by New
York State. The enthusiasm of these
craftsmen for the Constitution
confirms that not all federalists
were well-to-do.
Banner Paraded by the Society
of Pewterers in New York City,
1788 This silk banner was carried
by members of the Society of
Pewterers in a parade in New York
City, on July 23, 1788, to celebrate
the impending ratification of the
United States Constitution by New
York State. The enthusiasm of these
craftsmen for the Constitution
confirms that not all federalists
were well-to-do.
p176

79. Membership Certificate for the General Society of Mechanics &
Tradesmen, 1786 Thirteen artisans
gathered in New York on November 17,
1785, to establish the General Society
of Mechanics & Tradesmen, a craftsmen’s mutual aid organization intended to assist brethren in need and promote the significance of manufacturing to the local economy.
Membership Certificate for the
General Society of Mechanics &
Tradesmen, 1786 Thirteen artisans
gathered in New York on November 17,
1785, to establish the General Society
of Mechanics & Tradesmen, a craftsmen’s
mutual aid organization intended to
assist brethren in need and promote
the significance of manufacturing to
the local economy.
p178

80. The Four Laggard States
What states delayed ratification and why?

81. XV. The Four Laggard States
Virginia:
Provided fierce antifederalist opposition
They claimed document was death warrant of liberty
Federalists G. Washington, J. Madison, and John Marshall lent influential support
After intensive debate, state convention ratified it 89 to 79

82. XV. The Four Laggard States (cont.)
New York:
Alexander Hamilton joined John Jay and James Madison in a series of federalist newspaper articles
The Federalist Papers were most penetrating commentary ever written on Constitution
Most famous one is Madison's Federalist No. 10
Refuted that it was impossible to extend a republican form of government over a large territory
New York finally yielded, ratifying by count of 30 to 27

83. XV. The Four Laggard States (cont.)
North Carolina, after a hostile convention, adjourned without taking a vote
Rhode Island didn't summon a convention, rejected Constitution by popular referendum
Two most ruggedly individualist centers remained true to form

84. This cartoon appeared in the Massachusetts Centinel on
A Triumphant Cartoon
This cartoon appeared in the
Massachusetts Centinel on
August 2, Note the two
laggards, especially the sorry
condition of Rhode Island.
A Triumphant Cartoon
This cartoon appeared in the
Massachusetts Centinel on
August 2, Note the two
laggards, especially the sorry
condition of Rhode Island.
p177

85. XV. The Four Laggard States (cont.)
No lives were lost, but riots broke out in New York and Pennsylvania.
Lots of behind-the-scenes pressure on delegates who had promised to vote against Constitution.
Last four states ratified, not because they wanted to, but because they had to:
Could not safely exist outside new nation

86. A Conservative Triumph
Was America truly started by all the people, for all the people?

87. XVI. A Conservative Triumph
A minority triumphed—twice:
A militant minority of radicals engineered military Revolution that cast off British constitution
A militant minority of conservatives engineered peaceful revolution that overthrew inadequate Articles of Confederation
A majority had not spoken:
Only ¼ of adult white males voted for delegates to ratifying conventions = oligarchy, aristocracy?

88. XVI. A Conservative Triumph (cont.)
Conservatism was victorious, but principles of republican government were maintained through a redefinition of popular sovereignty:
Antifederalists claimed only legislatures could represent the people
Federalists claimed each branch of new government could represent the people
With self-limiting system of checks and balances among 3 branches, Constitution reconciled conflicting principles of liberty and order

89. The Pursuit of Equality
How did the framers get equality right and wrong?

90. XVII. The Pursuit of Equality
Equality was watchword everywhere:
Most states reduced property-holding requirements for voting
Ordinary men and women demanded to be addressed as “Mr.” and “Mrs.”
Employers called “boss,” not “master”
Pretentious Continental Army officials who formed Society of the Cincinnati faced ridicule

91. XVII. Pursuit of Equality (cont.)
Protracted fight to separate church and state resulted in notable gains:
Anglican Church disestablished; reformed as Protestant Episcopal Church
Struggle to separate religion and government proved fierce in Virginia
In 1786 Thomas Jefferson and co-reformers won with passage of Virginia Statute for Religious Freedom (see Table 5.1).

92. XVII. Pursuit of Equality (cont.)
Egalitarian sentiments challenged slavery:
Philadelphia Quakers in 1775 founded world's first antislavery society
Several Northern states called for either abolishing slavery outright or for gradual emancipation
Even in Virginia, a few idealistic masters freed their slaves

93. XVII. Pursuit of Equality (cont.)
Revolution of sentiments was incomplete
Domestic slave trade grew dramatically
Most of North end slavery only gradually
No state south of Pennsylvania abolished slavery
In both North and South, law discriminated against freed blacks and slaves alike

94. XVII. Pursuit of Equality (cont.)
Why not more rapid changes:
Fledgling idealism of Founding Fathers was sacrificed to political expediency
A fight over slavery would fracture fragile union
“Great as the evil (of slavery) is, a dismemberment of the union would be worse” James Madison (1787)
Nearly a century later, slavery did wreck Union—temporarily

95. XVII. The Pursuit of Equality (cont.)
Also incomplete was extension of equality to women:
New Jersey's new constitution (1776) for a while allowed women to vote
In general civil status of women not changed

96. XVII. The Pursuit of Equality (cont.)
Central to republican ideology was:
Civic virtue—democracy depended on unselfish commitment of each citizen to public good
Who could better cultivate virtue than mothers to whom society entrusted moral education of young
Idea of “republican motherhood” elevated women to prestigious role as special keepers of nation's conscience

97. XVII. The Pursuit of Equality (cont.)
Educational opportunities for women expanded so wives and mothers could better cultivate virtues demanded by Republic
Republican women now bore responsibility for survival of nation

98. Elizabeth “Mumbet” Freeman (ca. 1744–1829), by
Susan Anne Livingston Ridley Sedgwick, 1811 In
1781, having overheard Revolutionary-era talk about the
“rights of man,” Mumbet sued her Massachusetts master
for her freedom from slavery. She won her suit and lived
the rest of her life as a paid domestic servant in the home
of the lawyer who had pleaded her case.
Elizabeth “Mumbet” Freeman (ca. 1744–1829), by
Susan Anne Livingston Ridley Sedgwick, 1811 In
1781, having overheard Revolutionary-era talk about the
“rights of man,” Mumbet sued her Massachusetts master
for her freedom from slavery. She won her suit and lived
the rest of her life as a paid domestic servant in the home
of the lawyer who had pleaded her case.
p179

99. Short Answer
What was the basis for the Federalist argument that the Constitution was necessary and should be ratified? Cite a prime or secondary source in your book (properly, page #, who said it if possible
What was the basis for the anti-Federalist argument that the Constitution was not necessary and should not be ratified? Cite a prime or secondary source in your book (properly, page #, who said it if possible
Was the Constitution satisfactory to the various interested parties? Explain.

100. Short Answer
What was the basis for the Federalist argument that the Constitution was necessary and should be ratified? Cite a prime or secondary source in your book (properly, page #, who said it if possible

101. Short Answer
What was the basis for the anti-Federalist argument that the Constitution was not necessary and should not be ratified? Cite a prime or secondary source in your book (properly, page #, who said it if possible)

102. Short Answer
Was the Constitution satisfactory to the various interested parties? Explain (cite a primary or secondary source from the text)
Yes
The Constitution allows amendment to the law, except regarding rights. Those are protected. No
Only a small proportion of the voting-age men were allowed to vote. Unless all eligible men (and women) had voted, we cannot say it was satisfactory to all.

103. p181