1. Chapter 12
Motivation
Psychology Applied to Work®

2. Learning Objectives
Explain five critical concepts central to work motivation.
Understand the conceptual basis and degree of empirical support for these work motivation theories: biological-based, flow, self-determination, expectancy, equity, goal-setting, self-regulation, and work design.
Provide an overview and synthesis of the work motivation theories.
Understand the ways in which time impacts work motivation.
Give practical examples of applying motivational strategies.
Psychology Applied to Work®

3. Overview of Motivation
Three components:
Direction
Intensity
Persistence
Intrinsic vs. extrinsic motivation
Maximum vs. typical performance
Psychology Applied to Work®

4. Five Critical Concepts
Behavior (action)
Performance (some evaluation/appraisal of the behavior)
Ability (first determinant of behavior: relatively stable: what you can do)
Situational factors (second determinant: what you are allowed to do)
Motivation (the third determinant of behavior: what you will do)
Psychology Applied to Work®

5. Work Motivation Theories
Biological-based theory
Flow theory
Self-determination theory
Expectancy theory
Equity theory
Goal setting theory
Self-regulation theories
Work design theory
Psychology Applied to Work®

6. Biological-based Theory
Examines the role physiological responses and inherited traits in motivation
The gene D4DR, dopamine, and motivational chemistry
Conscientiousness: the will to achieve
Psychology Applied to Work®

7. Flow Theory Intrinsic motivation on steroids - being "in the zone"
3 preconditions
challenge-skill balance
clear goals
clear and immediate feedback
Some individuals are more prone to flow than others
Work-related flow related to benefits at work and at home
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8. Flow Theory (cont’d)
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9. Self-Determination Theory
Three basic needs necessary for intrinsic motivation:
autonomy
competence
relatedness
Undermining effect - belief/finding that extrinsic rewards decrease intrinsic motivation
occurs when extrinsic rewards undermine one or more of the basic needs
Psychology Applied to Work®

10. Self-Determination Theory (cont’d)
Importance of linking extrinsic motivations to values
Key meta-analytic findings
Intrinsic motivation related to quality of performance; extrinsic related to quantity
Intrinsic motivation and performance less related when incentives directly (vs. indirectly) tied to performance
Psychology Applied to Work®

11. Expectancy Theory
Cognitive theory that suggests motivation is a function of employee beliefs that:
effort will lead to performance (expectancy)
performance will lead to an outcome (instrumentality)
the outcome is valued (valence)
Psychology Applied to Work®

12. Equity Theory Motivation is social in nature
Individuals make comparisons between themselves and others to determine how hard to work
Comparison of a ratio of their inputs and outcomes with those of others
When ratio is equal, there is equity
When ratio is not equal, there is inequity
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13. Equity Theory (cont’d)
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14. Equity Theory (cont’d)
The basis for organizational justice perceptions
Comparisons may vary
self vs. other comparisons
internal vs. external comparisons
comparisons with actual people vs. thoughts
Psychology Applied to Work®

15. Equity Theory (cont’d)
Feelings of inequity motivate individuals to take action by:
reducing inputs,
increasing outcomes,
distorting their perceptions,
changing the comparison person, or
leaving the situation
Psychology Applied to Work®

16. Equity Theory (cont’d)
Equity sensitivity - individual difference for preference/tolerance for equity/inequity
benevolents
entitleds
equity sensitives
Psychology Applied to Work®

17. Goal-setting Theory
Motivation influenced by directing efforts toward established goals
Goals influence direction, intensity, and persistence, and influence development of novel task strategies
Goal content
learning goals
performance goals
Tendency to approach goals in certain ways: goal orientation
Psychology Applied to Work®

18. Goal-setting Theory (cont’d)
Goals lead to greater performance when:
they are specific (vs. vague)
they are difficult (vs. easy)
they are attainable (vs. unattainable)
individuals are committed to the goals
goal seen as attainable
goal attainment is important
self-set or participatively-set (vs. assigned)
public (vs. private)
tasks are simple (vs. complex)
tasks are independent (vs. interdependent)
feedback is provided (vs. not provided)
Psychology Applied to Work®

19. Goal-setting Theory (cont’d)
Evidence that goal setting is effective for groups and highly generalizable
Potential harmful effects (e.g., if goals are too difficult)
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20. Self-regulation Theories
Family of theories with the core concept of goals
People consciously set goals
People self-monitor
Use feedback for information about progress and being on target
Feedback yields discrepancies between current status / needed status for gain of rewards
If error message, individual responds and revises goals
Self-efficacy increases with success
Psychology Applied to Work®

21. Self-regulation Theories (cont’d)
General pattern of results is very positive
Research provides rich conceptual basis to understanding how individuals become motivated to pursue a goal, and why they persevere
Self-efficacy adds utility to some of the other theories explains how cognitive processes become activated in behavior; e.g., that people:
Form intentions
Set goals and anticipate outcomes
Adapt personal standards and monitor, regulate actions
Reflect and correct
Psychology Applied to Work®

22. Work Design Theory Proper design of job facilitates motivation
This process is called job enrichment
There are critical core job dimensions:
Skill variety
Task identity
Task significance
Autonomy
Feedback
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23. Work Design Theory (cont’d)
Jobs high on core dimensions – associated with high motivation
Value of core job attributes embodied in concept of job crafting
Evidence for multiple job characteristics
Most useful for manufacturing as opposed to knowledge-based organizations
Psychology Applied to Work®

24. Synthesis of Work Motivation Theories
Each theory provides understanding of how direction, intensity, and persistence are impacted
Theories can be organized along continuum of conceptual proximity to action
Proximal - directly influence behavior
Distal - indirectly influence behavior
As closer to proximal, motivation elevated to cognitive explanations
Most proximal (work design theory) relies primarily on the characteristics of the work environment as source of motivation
Psychology Applied to Work®

25. Synthesis of Work Motivation Theories
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26. The Impact of Time on Work Motivation
Deadlines - often included with goals but can lead to risk taking and impair creativity
Procrastination - self-regulatory failure
Distal outcomes often discounted
More likely with heavy workloads
Psychology Applied to Work®

27. The Impact of Time on Work Motivation (cont’d)
Planning fallacy - tendency to underestimate how long a task will take
more related to when people start an activity than when they finish it
Suggestions: unpack tasks and take third-person perspective
Psychology Applied to Work®

28. The Application of Motivational Strategies
Three major determinants of behavior: ability, motivation, situational factors (including constraints)
Most obvious beginning in problem analysis is remove constraints (obstacles that limit range of behavior)
Next step is to examine skill and ability factors
Last step is to examine dimensions/strategies of motivation:
Direction (energies channeled in creative directions)
Intensity (higher energy – trying harder
Persistence (sustained effort over time)
Pacing and spacing of motivation across different goals/activities
Psychology Applied to Work®