0. Motivation: From Concepts to Applications7
Motivation: From Concepts to Applications
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1. Chapter Learning Objectives
After studying this chapter, you should be able to:
Describe the Job Characteristics Model and evaluate the way it motivates by changing the work environment.
Compare and contrast the three main ways jobs can be redesigned.
Identify three alternative work arrangements and show how they might motive employees.
Give examples of employee involvement measures and show how they can motivate employees.
Demonstrate how the different types of variable-pay programs can increase employee motivation.
Show how flexible benefits turn benefits into motivators.
Identify the motivational benefits of intrinsic rewards.
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2. Motivation by Job Design: The JCM
Job Characteristics Model (JCM)
Hackman and Oldham’s concept that any job can be described through five core job dimensions:
Skill variety – Requirements for different tasks in the job.
Task identity – Completion of a whole piece of work.
Task significance – The job’s impact on others.
Autonomy – Level of discretion in decision making.
Feedback – Amount of direct and clear information on performance.
The way elements in a job are organized (job design) impacts motivation, satisfaction, and performance.
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3. The Job Characteristics Model
Employee growth-need strength moderates the relationships.
Source: J.R. Hackman and G.R. Oldham, Work Design (excerpted from pp. 78–80). © 1980 by Addison-Wesley Publishing Co., Inc. Reprinted by permission of Addison-Wesley Longman, Inc.
E X H I B I T 7-1
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4. Motivating Potential Score (MPS)
Five dimensions combined into a single predictive index of motivation.
People who work on jobs with high core dimensions are generally more motivated, satisfied, and productive.
Job dimensions operate through the psychological states in influencing personal and work outcome variables rather than influencing them directly.
While the JCM framework is supported by research, the MPS model isn’t practical and doesn’t work well.
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5. How Can Jobs Be Redesigned?
Job Rotation
The periodic shifting of a worker from one task to another
Job Enlargement
The horizontal expansion of jobs
Job Enrichment
The vertical expansion of jobs
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6. Guidelines for Enriching a Job
Source: J.R. Hackman and J.L. Suttle, eds., Improving Life at Work (Glenview, IL: Scott Foresman, 1977), p. 138.
E X H I B I T 7-2
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7. Alternative Work Arrangements
Flextime
Employees work during a common core time period each day but have discretion in forming their total workday from a flexible set of hours outside the core.
Job Sharing
The practice of having two or more people split a 40-hour-a-week job
E X H I B I T 7-3
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8. Another Alternative: Telecommuting
Employees do their work at home at least two days a week on a computer that is linked to their office.
The Virtual Office
Employees work out of their home on a relatively permanent basis.
Typical Telecommuting Jobs
Professional and other knowledge-related tasks
Routine information-handling tasks
Mobile activities
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9. Reasons for and against Telecommuting
Advantages
Disadvantages
Larger labor pool
Higher productivity
Less turnover
Improved morale
Reduced office-space costs
Employer
Less direct supervision of employees
Difficult to coordinate teamwork
Difficult to evaluate non-quantitative performance
Employee
May not be as noticed for his or her efforts
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10. Motivation Is Not the Whole Story
Performance
(P)
Motivation
(M)
(A)
Ability
Opportunity to Perform
(O)
P = f(A x M x O)
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11. Employee Involvement
A participative process that uses the input of employees to increase their commitment to the organization’s success.
By increasing worker autonomy and control over work lives (involvement), organizations:
Increase employee motivation
Gain greater organizational commitment
Experience greater worker productivity
Observe higher levels of job satisfaction
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12. Types of Employee Involvement Programs
Participative Management
Subordinates share a significant degree of decision-making power with their immediate superiors
Representative Participation
Works councils
Groups of nominated or elected employees who must be consulted for any personnel decisions
Board representative
An employee sits on a company’s board of directors and represents the interests of the firm’s employees
Quality Circle
A work group of employees who meet regularly to discuss their quality problems, investigate causes, recommend solutions, and take corrective actions
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13. Motivational Theory Links to EI Programs
Theory Y
Employees want to be involved
Managerial viewpoint
Two-Factor Theory
Intrinsic Motivation
Growth
Responsibility
Involvement
ERG Theory
Stimulate nAch
Recognition
Self-esteem
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14. Four Major Strategic Reward Decisions
What to pay? (pay structure)
How to pay individuals? (variable pay plans and skill-based pay plans)
What benefits to offer? Do we offer choice of benefits? (flexible benefits)
How to build recognition programs?
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15. 1. What to Pay – Pay Structure
Internal equity
The worth of the job to the organization
Determined by job evaluations
External equity
The competitiveness of the company’s pay relative to pay elsewhere in the industry
Determined through pay surveys
Choose organizational position
Pay leaders
Greater employee loyalty
Attracts better-quality employees
Pay laggards – accept high turnover for low hourly costs
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16. 2. How to Pay - Variable Pay Programs
Types of Variable Pay Programs
A portion of an employee’s pay is based on some individual and/or organizational measure of performance
Piece Rate:
Workers are paid a fixed sum for each unit of production completed
Weakness: not feasible for many jobs
Merit-Based:
Based on performance appraisal ratings
Gap increasing between average and top-performers
Weaknesses: validity of system based on annual appraisals, pay pool can be small, unions strongly resist
Bonuses:
Rewards recent performance
Weakness: employees consider this a pay
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17. 2. How to Pay - Skill-Based Pay Programs
Types of Skill-Based Programs:
Also known as competency- or knowledge-based pay - sets pay based on skills or number of jobs an employee can perform
Profit Sharing:
Organization-wide programs that distribute compensation based on some established formula designed around a company’s profitability
Gain Sharing:
An incentive plan in which improvements in group productivity determine the total amount of money that is allocated
Employee Stock Ownership Plans (ESOPs)
Company-established benefit plans in which employees acquire stock as part of their benefits
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18. Evaluation of Variable and Skill-based Pay
To some extent, variable pay does increase motivation and productivity
Benefits of Skill-based Pay Plans
Provide staffing flexibility
Facilitate communication across the organization
Lessen “protection of territory” behaviors
Meet the needs of employees for advancement
Lead to performance improvements
Drawbacks:
Lack of additional learning opportunities
Continuing to pay employees for obsolete skills
Paying for skills of no immediate use to the organization
Paying for a skill, not for performance of the skill
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19. 3. What Benefits to Offer - Flexible Benefits
Employees tailor their benefit program to meet their personal need by picking and choosing from a menu of benefit options.
Modular Plans
Predesigned benefits packages for specific groups of employees
Core-Plus Plans
A core of essential benefits and a menu-like selection of other benefit options
Flexible Spending Plans
Allow employees to use their tax-free benefit dollars to purchase benefits and pay service premiums
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20. 4. How to Build Recognition Programs
Intrinsic Rewards: Stimulate Intrinsic Motivation
Personal attention given to employee
Approval and appreciation for a job well done
Growing in popularity and usage
Benefits of Programs
Fulfill employees’ desire for recognition
Inexpensive to implement
Encourage repetition of desired behaviors
Drawbacks of Programs
Susceptible to manipulation by management
See E X H I B I T 7-4
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21. Global Implications Job Characteristics and Job Enrichment
Inconsistent results across cultures
Telecommuting
U.S. does this more, but EU workers are interested in it
Variable Pay
Not much research available, but some possible hypotheses on relationships
Flexible Benefits
This concept is becoming more prevalent globally
Employee Benefits
Practices must be modified to match culture
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22. Summary and Managerial Implications
To Motivate Employees
Recognize individual differences
Use goals and feedback
Allow employees to participate in decisions that affect them
Link rewards to performance
Check the reward system for equity
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