1. Introduction to Environmental Science
In every deliberation, we must consider our impact on the next seven generations.
- The Iroqouis Confederacy

2. Environmental Science
Environmental science is the study of the interaction of humans with the natural environment.
The environment includes all of the living and nonliving things that we interact with.
Climate
Soil and landforms
Water sources
Other living organisms

3. Natural Capital
Natural capital is all the natural resources and natural/ecosystem services that keep us and other species alive
Natural capital also supports human economies
Natural resources are materials and energy in nature that are essential or useful to humans – you will see classifications of natural resources later in this slideshow
Natural or ecosystem services are processes provided by healthy ecosystems. Examples include air/water purification, topsoil renewal, and pollination
All of these services support life and economies at no monetary cost to us!

4. Natural Capital = Natural Resources + Ecosystem Services Solar energy
Air
Renewable energy (sun, wind, water flows)
Air purification
Climate control
UV protection
(ozone layer)
Life
(biodiversity)
Water
Population control
Water purification
Pest control
Waste treatment
Figure 1.3 Natural capital consists of natural resources (blue) and natural or ecosystem services (orange) that support and sustain the earth’s life and human economies (Concept 1-1A).
Nonrenewable minerals
(iron, sand)
Soil
Land
Soil renewal
Food production
Natural gas
Nutrient recycling
Oil
Nonrenewable energy
(fossil fuels)
Coal seam
Natural resources
Ecosystem services
Fig. 1-3, p. 7

5. Natural Capital Degradation
Degradation of Normally Renewable Natural Resources
Shrinking forests
Climate change
Decreased wildlife habitats
Air pollution
Species extinction
Soil erosion
Water pollution
Figure 1.7 Natural capital degradation: Examples of the degradation of normally renewable natural resources and natural services (Figure 1-3) in parts of the world, mostly as a result of growing populations and rising rates of resource use per person.
Declining ocean fisheries
Aquifer depletion
Fig. 1-7, p. 11

6. Environmental science and the issues that it studies are complex and interdisciplinary, meaning it incorporates concepts and ideas from multiple fields of study.
Principles of Environmental Science, Cunningham, 2005.

7. A community decides to use coal for electricity, as it is the cheapest source available. (Economics)
The coal must be mined from under the soil. (Geology)
The coal must be transported to the population center by road or rail. (Engineering)
When it is burned at a power plant, air pollution is released. Some of that pollution is converted to acid in the atmosphere. (Chemistry)
This falls as acid rain somewhere downwind. (Meteorology)
The acid stresses plants by affecting their nutrient absorption. (Ecology)
Laws are passed requiring the plant to install pollution scrubbers. (Politics)

8. Environmental History
Humans have impacted the Earth since the very beginnings of civilization.
In 2400 B.C., the agricultural fields of Sumeria had grain production similar to modern agriculture – about 30 bushels per acre.
The Sumerians relied on irrigation, the artificial application of water from another source.
Tigris and Euphrates rivers.

9. This is an example of two important concepts in environmental science:
All water contains small amounts of minerals called salt, and that salt built up in the Mesopotamian soil over time.
Yields declined to half, then a fourth within a few hundred years.
By the 7th century A.D., slave labor had to be used to strip the upper salt layer from the soil so it could still be farmed.
By the 16th century, the Fertile Crescent of Mesopotamia was a salty wasteland.
This is an example of two important concepts in environmental science:
The Law of Unintended Consequences, which states that the actions of people and governments always have unexpected effects.
Unsustainability, a condition that cannot continue at its current rate.

10. The Tragedy of the Commons
An ecologist named Garrett Hardin wrote an essay called “The Tragedy of the Commons”, describing a major source of environmental conflict: resources that are not privately owned or regulated will often be depleted.
The self-interest of individuals takes priority over the best interests of the entire population.

11. A small village consists mostly of farmers that raise and sell sheep at a nearby city. The only place for the sheep to graze is a commons in the center of the village.
A commons is an area that belongs to no individual; it is shared by the entire society.
The villagers in this situation will have an incentive to obtain and graze as many sheep as possible. Over time, the commons will become barren and unusable.
A second village has its grazing land divided into nine fenced sections, each of which is owned by a different family.
These families will carefully control the amount of grazing to ensure their land is usable in the long- term.

12. Climate change, air pollution, water pollution, and overfishing of international waters are all modern examples of the Tragedy of the Commons.
Norilsk, Russia
Source: ecojunk.wordpress.com
Zadar, Croatia
Source: Agence France-Presse

13. The Progressive Era
In the United States, the environmental movement began with a series of conservation measures taken by President Teddy Roosevelt.
The goal was to prevent the destruction of commons – primarily unsustainable logging and hunting.
National Parks are preserved areas that are relatively unaltered from their original state.
No fishing, logging, commercial hunting, or livestock grazing can occur.
National Forests are federally-managed, but do allow commercial logging and recreational hunting and fishing.
National Wildlife Refuges do not allow commercial activities, but may allow recreational hunting and fishing.

15. Hetch Hetchy Debate
Years after the National Parks system was established, the city of San Francisco experienced an earthquake, followed by a massive fire.
About 90% of the damage was due to the fire, which exposed the city’s inadequate water supply.
"San Francisco 1906 fire 02 DA-SN " by Harry Sterling Hooper.

16. The city applied to the federal government to construct a reservoir in the Hetch Hetchy valley of Yosemite National Park.
In order for the dam to be constructed, a law would have to be passed by Congress and signed by President Woodrow Wilson.

17. Environmental Ethics
The Hetch Hetchy debate led to the emergence of two major philosophies - or environmental ethics; the moral relationship that humans have with the environment.

18. Anthropocentrism is a human-centered philosophy that protects and promotes of human interests or well-being at the expense of all other factors.
Biggest advocate: Gifford Pinchot, the first chief of the U.S. Forest Service.
Ecocentrists is a nature-centered philosophy that places intrinsic value on ecosystems regardless of their usefulness to humans.
Biggest advocate: John Muir, founder of the Sierra Club.

19. Construction of the dam began in 1914. It is still in use today.
Gifford Pinochet summarized the conservation ethics philosophy of planned, regulated utilization of environmental resources like this:
"Where conflicting interests must be reconciled, the question shall always be answered from the standpoint of the greatest good of the greatest number in the long run.“

20. Hetch Hetchy – Env Ethics

21. Inexhaustible (perpetual) resources cannot be used up.
Conservationists during the Progressive Era were the most concerned about resource depletion. They categorized natural resources into four groups:
Inexhaustible (perpetual) resources cannot be used up.
Sunlight.
Renewable resources can be replaced, but the process may take a long time.
Timber, wind.
Nonrenewable resources cannot be replaced, as their formation took millions of years.
Coal, oil, natural gas.
Recyclable resources can be used more than once.
Iron, aluminum, copper.

22. Modern Environmentalism
A series of major environmental disasters through the early 20th century raised awareness of other environmental issues besides resource conservation.

23. A dense smog of from a zinc plant in Donora, Pennsylvania in 1948 sickened thousands.
This was one of the deadliest incidents of air pollution, the introduction of particles or gases into the atmosphere that are harmful to living organisms.

25. Radioactive fallout from nuclear bomb testing in the Marshall Islands exposed native islanders and Navy sailors to radioactive fallout.
This material was carcinogenic, meaning it increased the risk of cancer.

26. A major oil spill near the city of Santa Barbara in 1969, coupled a fire on the Cuyahoga river that same year left powerful images of the effects of water pollution, the contamination of lakes, rivers, oceans, and groundwater.

28. Rachel Carson published the book “Silent Spring” in 1962, documenting the effects that indiscriminate spraying of pesticides like DDT were having on the environment.
Many of these pesticides were persistent pollutants, meaning they resist normal environmental degradation.
Biodegradable pollutants will decompose over time.

29. Major Environmental Problems
Pollution
Pollution is a degradation or an undesired change in air, water, or soil that affects the health of living things.
Biodegradable pollution will break down naturally over time.
Nondegradable pollution does not break down.

30. Pollution, whether in air or water, can move and affect ecosystems far away from the source.
This map shows the areas with the highest concentrations of air pollution.

31. Many species, such as the whooping crane, nearly disappeared completely from the wild due to overhunting and habitat loss. This raised awareness of the problem of extinction.
Extinction, or the complete loss of a species, is a natural event that can be accelerated by human actions.
Elevated rates of extinction reduces the biodiversity, or variety of species found in a particular habitat or ecosystem.

32. Loss of Biodiversity
There are five known major extinction events in Earth’s history.
The most recent major extinction, about 65 million years ago, caused 75% of all species to disappear from the Earth.
Believed to have been caused by a meteor impact.

33. Loss of Biodiversity
Assuming no catastrophic events occur, extinctions normally occur at a pretty slow rate, called the background rate.
Normal background extinction rate for mammals is 1 every 200 years.
Scientists believe we may be in the midst of the next major extinction event, due to human influences.
Australia has experienced 27 mammal extinctions since 1788, primarily due to the influence of European settlers.
The short-tailed hopping mouse, now extinct in Australia.

34. Rapid increases in the population size of countries like India and China caused fears of human overpopulation and famine, an extreme scarcity of food.
One prediction from the book, The Population Bomb:
“The battle to feed all of humanity is over. In the 1970s hundreds of millions of people will starve to death in spite of any crash programs embarked upon now. At this late date nothing can prevent a substantial increase in the world death rate...”

35. Industrial revolution
Exponential Growth of Human Population ?
Billions of people
Industrial revolution
Figure 1.16 Exponential growth: The J-shaped Industrial revolution Black Death—the Plague curve represents past exponential world population growth, with projections to 2100 showing possible population stabilization as the J-shaped curve of growth changes to an S-shaped curve. (This figure is not to scale.)
Black Death—the Plague
Time
Hunting and gathering
Agricultural revolution
Industrial revolution
Fig. 1-16, p. 17

36. In 1978, homes in the city of Love Canal, New York, were abandoned due to leakage from a massive chemical waste dump near the elementary school.
This was hazardous waste; compounds that are especially dangerous to the environment and human health.

37. Causes of Environmental Problems
Excluding
environmental costs from market prices
Increasing
isolation
from nature
Population
growth
Unsustainable
resource use
Poverty
Figure 1-15: Environmental and social scientists have identified four basic causes of the environmental problems we face (Concept 1-3). Question: For each of these causes, what are two environmental problems that result?
Fig. 1-15, p. 16

38. Laws and Regulation
A series of laws were passed in response to the modern environmentalism movement.
The Safe Drinking Water Act, which regulates the testing and contents of municipal tap water.
The Clean Water Act, which restricts pollution of surface waters.
The Clean Air Act, which restricts pollution of the atmosphere.
The Resource Conservation and Recovery Act, which describes rules for handling toxic and hazardous waste.
The Endangered Species Act, which lists species at risk for extinction and plans for their recovery.
The creation of the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), which is charged with enforcing these and other laws.

39. Post-Environmentalism
Many of those same environmental issues persist today, but are increasingly complex to deal because they are spread throughout the entire world, not just a single country.
Global environmentalism explores issues and problems over the entire world, not just within the local community. Examples are:
Global warming
Population control
Water scarcity
Resource depletion
Loss of biodiversity

40. The Demographic Divide
One of the biggest challenges is dealing with environmental issues in developing countries that have not yet fully industrialized.
Compared to developed countries, developing countries tend to have:
Lower gross domestic product (GDP), a measure of the monetary value of the goods and services produced.
Higher total fertility rates, the number of children born to an average woman.
Lower life expectancy, the number of years an average person will live.
Fewer environmental regulations and worker protections.

41. U.S.
Japan
India
Haiti
Life Expectancy 79 83 66 62
Total Fertility Rate (births per woman)
1.93
1.39
2.56
3.35
Gross Domestic Product Per Person
$49,040
$34,830
$4,500
$1,490
Energy Use Per Person (Kilowatt-Hours)
13,240
7,841
698 31
Carbon Dioxide Produced Annually Per Person (Tons)
17.0
9.3
1.7
0.2
While developed countries have a slower population growth rate, they have a much higher rate of consumption, the rate of use of natural resources.

42. Economics and the Environment
Economic principles has a huge influence in environmental decision- making.
Supply and demand predicts that the cost of a resource will increase when demand is high or supply is low.

43. Another important economic idea is the cost-benefit analysis
Another important economic idea is the cost-benefit analysis. This questions whether the benefit of doing something justifies the economic cost.
Many companies use labor in developing countries as a way to reduce their own costs of production and the final price tag of their products.
The workers in these countries often face dangerous working conditions. These are hidden costs not reflected in what we pay for the item.
A collapsed garment factory in Savar, Bangladesh. Source: AP

44. Example of Hidden Costs
StarKist brand chunk light tuna in water
Price at Shop Rite: $0.99
American Tuna brand wild albacore tuna in water
Price at Whole Foods Market: $4.99
What are the hidden costs behind that $4.00 price difference?

45. Another good example is the 1984 explosion of a pesticide factory located near the town of Bhopal, India.
Environmental regulations, worker protections, and government inspections were minimal.
Chemicals that leaked into the air resulted in an immediate death toll in the thousands.
A total of 558,125 injuries were reported to the Indian government.
A settlement of $470 million was reached by Union Carbide and the Indian government, although originally $3.3 billion was claimed.

46. In 2004, on the 20th anniversary of the Bhopal disaster, the Yes Men performed an elaborate prank to increase awareness of the still- unremediated Union Carbide site.

47. Ecological Footprint
The impact of a person on the environment is expressed in a model called the ecological footprint, an estimate of the amount of land needed to support their lifestyle.
Includes the amount of space needed to support each person in a nation, including forests, farms, cities, etc.
If the developing countries industrialized and matched the resource consumption rate of the United States, an estimated three Earths would be needed.

48. IPAT Equation(Another Environmental Impact Model)
I = P x A x T
I = Environmental impact
P = Population
A = Affluence
T = Technology
Human Impact (I) on the environment equals the product of P= Population, A= Affluence, T= Technology. This describes how growing population, affluence, and technology (+ or -) contribute toward our environmental impact.

49. IPAT Less-Developed Countries Consumption per person (affluence, A)
Technological impact per unit of consumption (T)
Environmental impact of population (I)
Population (P) X X =
Figure 1.14 This simple model demonstrates how three factors—population size, affluence (resource use per person), and technology—help to determine the environmental impacts of populations in lessdeveloped countries (top) and more-developed countries (bottom). Red arrows show generalized harmful impacts and green arrows show generalized beneficial impacts.
More-Developed Countries
Fig. 1-14, p. 17

50. The Goal: A Sustainable World
Sustainability is when human needs are met so that the population can survive indefinitely.
“Meeting the needs of the
present without
compromising the ability of
future generations to meet
their own needs.”
Brundtland Commission, 1987

51. Solar Energy Chemical Cycling Biodiversity
Three Principles of Sustainability
Solar Energy
Figure 1.2 Three scientific principles of sustainability based on how nature has sustained a huge variety of life on the earth for 3.5 billion years, despite drastic changes in environmental conditions
Chemical Cycling
Biodiversity
Fig. 1-3, p. 8

52. Three Scientific Principles of Sustainability
Dependence on solar energy
The sun provides warmth, fuels photosynthesis, and indirectly powers renewable sources of energy like wind and hydro)
Biodiversity
A wide variety and adaptability of natural systems and species will keep ecosystems healthy (natural services and populations remain in check)
Chemical cycling
From the environment to organisms and then back to the environment, necessary for life

53. ECONOMICS Full-cost pricing Responsibility to future generations
Principles of Sustainability
ECONOMICS
Full-cost pricing
Responsibility to
future generations
ETHICS
Win-win results
POLITICS
Figure 1.5 Three social science principles of sustainability can help us make a transition to a more environmentally and economically sustainable future.
Fig. 1-5, p. 9

54. Other Principles of Sustainability Come from the Social Sciences
Full-cost pricing
Include harmful health and environmental costs of goods and services in their market prices (gasoline should really cost about $12/gal…)
Win-win solutions
Solutions to env problems should benefit both people and the environment
A responsibility to future generations. Duh.

55. Environmental Worldviews
There are three perspectives in how we should deal with issues of pollution, resource overconsumption, and loss of biodiversity.
The planetary management worldview takes the perspective that humans should manage the Earth’s resources to achieve the maximum benefit.

56. The stewardship worldview also believes that humans should manage the Earth, but in a more ethical and sustainable way.
Also anthropogenic, but with more of an emphasis on living such a way that human needs can be met indefinitely. This is called sustainability.

57. The environmental wisdom worldview believes that we are totally dependent on nature and should preserve nature as much as possible to maintain our own species.
An ecocentric worldview that emphasizes sustainability for all species.
The Wat Pa Luang Ta Bua Temple in Thailand, where orphan Bengal tigers and their offspring are cared for.

58. Each of these worldviews acknowledges that the Earth is a closed system, meaning matter does not enter or leave it in large amounts.
Resources are finite.
Wastes do not “go away”.
These understandings form the basis for understanding and solving each of the issues within environmental science.
Earthrise, taken by astronaut Frank Borman in 1968, during the Apollo 8 mission.